curso de ingles

Módulo 1

Unidad 1

Lectura 1: Elementos Básicos para la Comprensión de Textos

Materia: Inglés técnico

Profesora: Patricia Rivera

Materia: Inglés Técnico – Profesora: Patricia Rivera | 2

1. Sentence Elements [Elementos

constitutivos de las oraciones] La estructura de las oraciones en inglés no es tan difícil como aparenta, para ello vamos a analizar parte por parte.

¿Qué es “oración”?

La oración es la unidad comunicativa mínima, es portadora de un mensaje, a la vez que es un todo organizado y sistemático y como tal, tiene una forma, una estructura.

Las oraciones en inglés, usan dos tipos distintos de palabras: las palabras clave (o de contenido) [content words] y las palabras funcionales [function words]. Las palabras clave expresan significado. Las palabras funcionales establecen relaciones entre las distintas partes de la oración, pero no transmiten significado por sí solos.

Las palabras clave y las funcionales componen las unidades de estructura integradas de la siguiente manera:

Sujeto [subject]: un sustantivo o un equivalente de un sustantivo que ejecuta una acción o que denota un estado en particular; generalmente aparece precediendo al verbo y determina su número (singular o plural).

Verbo [verb]: una palabra que representa la acción o el estado en particular del sujeto; muestra el tiempo, persona y número.

Predicado [predicate]: el verbo y toda otra palabra relacionada con éste.

Verbo copulativo [linking verb]: un verbo que expresa una condición (to be, to seem) en lugar de una acción directa.

Objeto Directo [direct object]: un sustantivo o un equivalente de sustantivo que responde a la pregunta que inicia con “qué” unida al verbo.

Objeto Indirecto [indirect object]: un sustantivo que responde a la pregunta que inicia con “a quién o para qué” o “para quién o para qué” unida al verbo. En la oración, aparece antes del objeto directo.

Complemento [complement]: un sustantivo o adjetivo en el predicado, siguiendo a un verbo copulativo. Se refiere al sujeto más que al verbo porque un verbo copulativo expresa una condición antes que una acción directa.


En inglés, estos elementos pueden combinarse en cinco patrones básicos de oración:

S V

Subject + Verb: Rain falls.

S V DO

Subject + Verb + Direct Object: The lawyer filed a brief.

S V DO C

3. Subject + Verb + Direct Object + Complement: The people elected Thomas mayor.

S V IO

4. Subject + Verb + Indirect Object + Direct Object: The assistant brought the manager

DO

a print-out.

S LV C

5. Subject + Linking Verb + Complement: Some drivers are careless.

Ahora analizaremos una por una las unidades de estructura de la oración.

1.1 The Subject (S)

El sujeto es el punto de partida o el punto focal de una oración, es el sustantivo (noun) o su equivalente (pronombre [pronoun], cláusula nominativa [noun clause], gerundio [gerund], infinitivo [infinitive]) que expresa aquello de lo que la oración trata:

S

Hurried students often make careless mistakes. (noun)

S

She runs faster than her brother does. (pronoun)

S

What he doesn’t know is that he talks too much. (noun clause)

S

Talking is his only exercise. (gerund)

S

To listen is to suffer. (infinitive)


El sujeto simple de una oración es una sola palabra, tal como decisionen el ejemplo siguiente:

S

The Marbury v. Madison decision of 1803 established the power of the Supreme Court to declare an Act of Congress unconstitutional.

El sujeto compuesto de una oración consiste del sujeto simple más cualquier otra palabra que lo modifica / califica. En el ejemplo anterior, el sujeto compuesto es The Marbury v. Madison decision of 1803.

En la mayoría de los casos, se puede identificar el sujeto de una oración preguntando quién o quéestá realizando la acción o quién o qué es el punto focal de la oración:

Isamu Noguchi has created numerous architecturally significant sculptures. (El

“hacedor” de la acción es Isamu Noguchi)

Among those responsible for distorting the historial record of Richard III’s reign was Sir Thomas More, the Lord Chancellor of England under Henry VIII. (El foco de atención – y sujeto de la oración – no es el registro histórico de Richard III sino Sir Thomas More. Si cambiamos el orden: Sir Thomas More was among those responsible ….)

En inglés no existe el Sujeto Tácito (ST) como tenemos en español:

ST V

Fui al banco .

Todo verbo necesita tener un sujeto:

S V

Iwent to the bank.


1.2 The Verb (V)

El verbo es una palabra que señala una acción, una condición, o un proceso. En la oración, el verbo tiene concordancia con el sujeto y toma formas tales como ask, asks, asked, asking o sing, sings, sang, sung, singing. En la oración típica, el verbo sigue al sujeto y, como el sujeto, es con frecuencia el núcleo de palabras que lo modifican. El verbo puede consistir de una o más palabras.

S V

Hurried students often make careless mistakes.

S V

Leslie Jones has driven for twenty years without getting a ticket.

S V

Perhaps the defendant should be given the benefit of the doubt.

1.3 The Predicate

El predicado es el verbo y toda otra palabra relacionada a éste tales como objeto, complemento y modificadores. En las siguientes oraciones el predicado está destacado en negritas y el verbo identificado con una V:

S V

Hurried students often make careless mistakes.

S V

The doorbell rang. (El verbo es el predicado completo.)

SV

After finishing his second year, George spent two long

sessions talking with his advisor about his major.

Las oraciones simples están compuestas de un sujeto y un predicado, es decir, un sujeto con todos sus modificadores y el verbo con todas las palabras relacionadas a éste:


Subject + Predicate

Solzhenitsyn

won.

Solzhenitsyn, the Russian novelist,

won a Nobel Prize.

Solzhenitsyn, the Russian novelist and critic of Soviet society,

won a Nobel Prize for literature in 1970.

1.4 The Object:

El objeto directo [direct object] (DO) de un verbo es un sustantivo (noun) o un equivalente de éste que completa la oración. Responde a la pregunta con estructura: verbo + “what?” o verbo + “whom?”(Hurried students often make what?: careless mistakes.)

S V DO

Hurried students often make careless mistakes. (noun)

S V DO

The Sherwoods have decided to buy a house. (infinitive phrase)

S V DO

He wondered what he should do. (noun clause)

El objeto indirecto [indirect object] (IO) se usa con verbos que transmiten el concepto de decir (telling), preguntar o pedir (asking), dar u otorgar (giving), recibir (receiving), entre otros. Nombra al receptor del mensaje, regalo, u otro, respondiendo a las preguntas “a quién o a qué?”, “para quién o para qué?”. Aparece antes del direct object.

S V IO DO

He gave the church a memorial window.


Este mismo significado puede transmitirse usando un prepositional phrase colocado después del direct object.

S V DO IO

He gave a memorial window to the church.

1.5 The Complement

El complemento [complement] (C) es un sustantivo (noun) o un adjetivo (adjective) en el predicado que sigue a un linking verb (LV). A diferencia del objeto, el complemento está relacionado con el sujeto antes que con el verbo, ya que el LV expresa una condición o una cualidad en lugar de una acción directa. Un sustantivo (noun) usado como complemento (C) es un predicate noun; un adjetivo (adjective) usado como complemento (C) es un predicate adjective.

S LV C

Mary Enderby is a skilled architect. (predicate noun)

S LV C C

Tomatoes are actually fruits, not vegetables. (predicate nouns)

S LV C

The tenor sounded a little flat. (predicate adjective)

S LV C C

The sky seemed low and heavy. (predicate adjective)


Verbos copulativos[linking verbs] (LV): son los verbos que conectan (link) el sujeto a un sustantivo predicativo (SP) o a un adjetivo (Adj):

SP

She is a teacher.

Adj

The days became warmer.

Los linking verbs más comunes son:

is was has been

are were might be

Otros linking verbs son:

seem appear

y, según el contexto:

feel grow act

look smell taste

sound


2. Classification of sentences according to structure [Clasificación de las oraciones por su

estructura]

Se puede clasificar a las oraciones por su estructura. Según la cantidad y tipo de cláusulas que contienen, se dividen en: simples, compuestas, complejas y compuestas-complejas.

2.1 Simple Sentences

La oración simple contiene una cláusula independiente (independent clause):

The man went across the street.

Something is wrong.

Who wrote the letter?

Aunque las “simple sentences” contienen únicamente una cláusula, no necesariamente están limitadas a una única idea simple. Pueden contener cualquier cantidad de modificadores (modifiers) y el “subject” o el “predicate” o ambos pueden ser compuestos:

To write a complete book on aerospace engineering requires a thorough knowledge of the field.

Colleges and universities do not exist to impose duties but to reveal choices. (compound subject, compound object).- Archibald MacLeish, “Why Do We Teach Poetry,” The Atlantic Monthly.

2.2 Compound Sentences

Las oraciones compuestas contienen dos o más cláusulas principales:

(1era cláusula – cláusula principal)

The phone rang, and she answered it.


(1era cláusula – cláusula principal)

The nations of Asia and Africa are moving with jet-like speed toward gaining political independence,

but we still creep at horse-and-buggy pace toward gaining a cup of coffee at a lunch counter.- Martin Luther King, Jr., “Letter from Birmingham Jail.”

Cada cláusula en una “compound sentence” es independiente y coordinada, de igual rango que las otras cláusulas. Las cláusulas pueden estar unidas (o separadas) de una de las siguientes formas:

1.Con conjunciones [coordinating conjunctions]: and, but, or, nor,

for, yet – o las correlativas: either …or, neither … nor, both … and, not only … but (also)

It rained all morning, but it cleared up for the picnic.

Either you play to win or you don’t play at all.

2.Sin conectores [connectives]: las cláusulas independientes que no se

unan con conjunciones se separan con punto y coma (;):

I didn’t study; I failed the test.

3.Con “conjunctive adverbs”: las cláusulas en una oración compuesta a

veces se conectan con un adverbio tal como: accordingly, also, consequently, however, nevertheless, therefore, then. Debido a que la función de conector de estos adverbios es débil, es necesario utilizar punto y coma antes de ellos:

Fuel prices declined; consequently, they bought a larger car.

The urban renewal program has many outspoken opponents; nevertheless, some land has already been cleared.

2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 Complex SentencesComplex SentencesComplex SentencesComplex Sentences

Una oración compleja está compuesta por una cláusula principal y una o más cláusulas subordinadas:

[main clause] [subordinate clause]

Prairies are valuable because they are fertile and flat.

[subordinate clause] [main clause] [secondary subordinate clause]

As far as I could determine, Paris hadn’t changed at all since I last visited it ten

years before.


Las oraciones complejas ofrecen mayor variedad que las oraciones simples y expresan relaciones entre ideas de manera más precisa que las expresadas por las oraciones compuestas.

2.4 Compound-Complex Sentences

Una oración compuesta-compleja contiene dos o más cláusulas principales y una o más cláusulas subordinadas:

[first subordinate clause] [first main clause] [second subordinate clause]

When two men fight a duel, the matter is trivial, but when 200 million people

[second main clause]

fight 200 million people, the matter is serious.- Bertrand Russell, The Impact of Science on Society.

Las “compound-complex sentences” ocurren con menor frecuencia que las otras.

Subordinating Connectors [Conectores subordinantes]

1. Pueden servir para introducir frases adjetivas:

who when

which where

that why

2. Pueden servir para introducir frases adverbiale s:

after so

although until

as when


because where

If wherever

since while

3. Puede servir para introducir frases sustantivas, introducidas por “ that” además de por:

whatever why

whoever when

who where

what whether


3. Classification of sentences according to purpose [Clasificación de las oraciones por su propósito] Las oraciones también pueden ser clasificadas por su significado o propósito:

3.1 Aseveraciones [statements],

también llamadas oraciones declarativas. La mayor parte de las oraciones que usamos son de este tipo

Judy laughed.

3.2 Preguntas [questions],

llamadas oraciones interrogativas

At what temperature does water boil?

Why do you ask?

3.3 Órdenes [commands],

oraciones imperativas: incluye pedidos e instrucciones.

Write soon.

When the liquid boils, remove it from the heat.

3.4 Exclamaciones [exclamations],

sentimientos, hechos u opiniones expresados enfáticamente, también llamadas oraciones exclamativas

How lucky you are!

He should be thrown out!


4. Verbs and Verb Tenses [Verbos y tiempos verbales]

A modo de repaso:

Por su significado, los verbos indican acción (run, manufacture, write), condición o estado (am, feel, sleep), o proceso (become, grow).

Por su forma, los verbos pueden constar de una palabra (do, see) o de una frase (should have done, will be seeing).

Para indicar persona, número, tiempo verbal y voz, los verbos pueden agregar letras (proves, proved) o cambiar internamente (sing, sang, sung).

Excepto en las interrogaciones, los verbos generalmente van después del sujeto.

Para interrogar y negar, en general, y para indicar el tiempo verbal, en particular, los verbos en inglés necesitan del auxiliar [auxiliary verb]. El verbo auxiliar muestra tiempo, voz y número.

Según sus tiempos [tenses], los verbos auxiliares son:

Present

Past

Future

Simple

do / does

did

will

Progressive o Continuous

am / is / are

was / were

will be

Perfect

have / has

had

will have

Perfect Progressive o Continuous

have / has been

had been

will have been


4.1 Verb Tenses [Tiempos Verbales]

Base Form Simple Past

Past Participle

Base Form Simple Past Past Participle

arise arose arisen bid bid bid

awake awoke awaken bind bound bound

Be was, were been bite bit bitten

bear bore borne/born bleed bled bled

beat beat beaten/beat blow blew blown

become became become break broke broken

begin began begun breed bred bred

bend bent bent bring brought brought

Bet bet bet broadcast broadcast broadcast

Base Form Simple Past

Past Participle


build built built give gave given

burst burst burst go went gone

buy bought bought grind ground ground

cast cast cast grow grew grown

catch caught caught hang hung hung

choose chose chosen have had had

cling clung clung hear heard heard

come came come hide hid hidden

cost cost cost hit hit hit

creep crept crept hold held held


El tiempo de un verbo indica si la acción ocurrió en el pasado (she spoke), si ocurre en el presente (she speaks), o si ocurrirá en el futuro (she will speak). El tiempo también indica la continuidad de una acción o de una explicación (she is speaking, she will be speaking).

Cut cut cut hurt hurt hurt

deal dealt dealt keep kept kept

Dig dug dug know knew known

Do did done lay laid laid

draw drew drawn lead led led

drink drank drunk leave left left

drive drove driven lend lent lent

eat ate eaten let let let

fall fell fallen lie lay lain

feed fed fed light lit/lighted lit/lighted

feel felt felt lose lost lost

fight fought fought make made made

find found found mean meant meant

fit fit fit meet met met

flee fled fled mislay mislaid mislaid

fling flung flung mistake mistook mistaken

fly flew flown misunderstand misunderstood misunderstood

forbid forbade forbidden oversleep overslept overslept

forecast forecast forecast pay paid paid

forget forgot forgotten put put put

forgive forgave forgiven quit quit quit

forsake forsook forsaken read read read

freeze froze frozen rebuild rebuilt rebuilt

get got gotten redo redid redone


4.1.1 Formas en los tiempos verbales

La forma apropiada de un verbo debe ser usada para indicar cada uno de sus tiempos.

Los verbos regulares presentan pocos problemas porque tienen únicamente dos formas:

la forma base (no conjugada del verbo), que se usa para conjugar el presente (walk, imagine, sleep);

una forma terminada en –ed, -d o –t para el pasado y el participio pasado (o 3era columna).

4.1.2 Los verbos irregulares cambian su forma para expresar el pasado y el participio pasado.



rewrite rewrote rewritten spring sprang/sprung sprung

rid rid rid stand stood stood

ride rode ridden steal stole stolen

ring rang rung stick stuck stuck

rise rose risen sting stung stung

run ran run stink stank/stunk stunk

saw sawed sawed/sawn strike struck struck/stricken

say said said string strung strung

see saw seen strive strove striven

seek sought sought swear swore sworn

sell sold sold sweep swept swept

send sent sent swim swam swum

set set set swing swung swung

shake shook shaken take took taken

shave shaved shaved/shaven teach taught taught

shed shed shed tear tore torn


shine shone/shined shone/shined tell told told

shoot shot shot think thought thought

show showed shown/showed throw threw thrown

shrink shrank/shrunk shrunk thrust thrust thrust

shut shut shut understand understood understood

sing sang sung undertake undertook undertaken

sink sank/sunk sunk undo undid undone

sit sat sat upset upset upset

sleep slept slept wake woke/waked woken/waked

slide slid slid wear Wore worn

slit slit slit weave Wove woven

speak spoke spoken weep Wept wept

speed sped/speeded sped/speeded wet wet wet

spend spent spent win won won

spin spun spun wind wound wound

Spit spit/spat spit/spat withdraw withdrew withdrawn

split split split wring wrung wrung

spread spread spread write wrote written

4.2 Verb BE [El verbo ser o estar]

El verbo BE tiene ocho formas de conjugación, tres más que las de cualquier otro verbo en el idioma inglés.

Además del infinitivo [to be], hay tres formas en el presente y dos en el pasado, más el participio presente y el participio pasado.


Present Tense

Past Tense

Present Participle

Past Participle

I

am

was

being

been

he, she, it

is

was

we, you, they

are

were

En inglés existen doce tiempos verbales [verb tenses]:


A modo de repaso, veremos en general cuáles son los usos de estos tiempos:

SIMPLE PRESENT

Se utiliza para:

1) Afirmar hechos en general

2) Expresar hábitos o rutinas.

3) Indicar que una situación existe ahora, al momento de hablar, con verbos que no toman la forma continua o progresiva.

4) Expresar un tiempo futuro en oraciones concernientes a eventos con horarios definidos - sólo aplica a unos cuantos verbos: open, close, begin, end, start, finish, arrive, leave, come, return

5) En oraciones que se refieren al presente, se utiliza con always para describir actividades habituales o cotidianas.

PRESENT PROGRESSIVE / CONTINUOUS

Se utiliza para:

1) Expresar una actividad que está en progreso al momento de hablar.

2) A menudo la actividad es de naturaleza general; algo en progreso esta semana, mes, año. No es algo que se esté realizando en el momento de hablar.

3) Puede expresar un tiempo futuro cuando la idea de la oración concierne a una intención definida. El significado futuro estará indicado por una expresión de tiempo que indique futuro o por su contexto.

4) En circunstancias especiales, se utiliza con "always" para quejarse, y con "forever" y "constantly" para mostrar irritación o enojo.

PRESENT PERFECT

Se utiliza para:

1) Expresar la idea de que algo sucedió (o no) antes de ahora, en un momento no especificado en el pasado. El momento exacto en que sucedió no es importante.

2) Expresar la repetición de una actividad antes de ahora. El momento exacto de cada repetición no tiene importancia.

3) Cuando se utiliza con "for" o "since", expresa una situación que comenzó en el pasado y se continúa en el presente.

"Since" + un momento en particular

"For" + una duración o período de tiempo

PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE / CONTINUOUS

Se utiliza para:

1) Expresar la duración de una actividad que comenzó en el pasado y continúa al presente. Se utilizan palabras que indican tiempo, tales como: for, since, all morning, all day, all week. Expresa una acción que no se detiene, que se continúa en el presente.

2) Si no hay una mención a un momento específico, expresa una actividad general y que estuvo en progreso recientemente. Una acción que se detiene antes del presente.

3) Con determinados verbos (especialmente work, live, teach) hay escasa diferencia de significado entre una oración con for o since en Present Perfect y una similar en Present Perfect Progressive/Continuous.


SIMPLE PAST

Se utiliza para:

1) Indicar que una actividad o situación comenzó y terminó en un momento determinado en el pasado.

2) Si una oración contiene when y tiene verbos en Simple past en las dos partes o cláusulas, la acción que acompaña la cláusula del when sucedió primero.

PAST PROGRESSIVE / CONTINUOUS

Se utiliza para:

1) Expresar que dos acciones ocurrieron al mismo tiempo; pero una acción comenzó antes y estuvo en progreso hasta que la otra acción sucedió.

2) Una acción comenzó antes de un momento determinado, estaba en progreso en ese momento y probablemente continuó.

3) A veces, el Past progressive se utiliza en las dos partes o cláusulas de la oración cuando las dos acciones están en progreso simultáneamente

4) En algunos casos, el simple past y el past progressive dan casi el mismo significado a la oración.

PAST PERFECT

Se utiliza para:

1) Expresar que una actividad fue completada antes que otra actividad o momento en el pasado.

2) Si en una oración se utiliza before o after, el past perfect es innecesario porque la relación de tiempo queda claramente definida. En este caso se puede usa el simple past sin alterar el significado de la oración.

PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE / CONTINUOUS

Se utiliza para:

1) Hacer énfasis sobre la duración de una actividad que estaba en progreso antes de otra actividad o momento en el pasado.

2) Puede expresar una actividad en reciente progreso en relación a otra actividad o momento en el pasado.

SIMPLE FUTURE (WILL/ BE GOING TO)

Se forma con will y se utiliza:

1) Cuando se expresa una predicción (una oración acerca de algo que se cree que será verdad u ocurrirá en el futuro). También puede utilizarse be going to (future of intention).

2) A veces se utiliza will para expresar voluntad de hacer algo.

3) Cuando se expresa un plan previo (algo que se tiene

FUTURE PROGRESSIVE / CONTINUOUS

Se utiliza para:

1) Expresar una actividad que estará en progreso en algún momento en el futuro.

2) A veces, hay poca o ninguna diferencia entre el future progressive / continuous y el simple future, especialmente cuando el futuro evento ocurrirá en un momento indefinido en el futuro.

FUTURE PERFECT

Se utiliza para:

1) Expresar una acción que estará completada antes de otro momento o evento en el futuro.

Cuando tenemos cláusulas de tiempo se utiliza el simple present para referimos al futuro.

FUTURE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE / CONTINUOUS

Se utiliza para:

1) Hacer énfasis sobre la duración de una actividad que estará en progreso antes de otro momento o evento en el futuro.

2) A veces, el future perfect y el future perfect progressive / continuous dan el

mismo significado.


4.3 Verbals

Los “verbals” son aquellos términos que combinan las características de un verbocon aquellas de las de un sustantivo [noun],un adjetivo[adjective] o un adverbio [adverb]. Es decir, su función no es la de un verbo.

Se los clasifica como:

a.infinitivos [infinitives] (to ask, to buy), que pueden servir como sustantivos [nouns] o como modificadores [modifiers].

b. participios [participles] (asking, asked, buying, bought), que sirven para modificar sustantivos [nouns] y pronombres [pronouns].

c. gerundios [gerunds]: (asking, buying).

Aunque el present participle y el gerund son idénticos en su forma, difieren en su uso:

Participle: a dancing figure (modifier)

Gerund: dancing takes skill (noun)

Uso de “verbals” en frases:

Los verbals tienen muchas de las cualidades de los verbos: ayudados por los auxiliares, pueden por ejemplo, mostrar el tiempo verbal y pueden tener un objeto. No obstante, en muchas oraciones, estas frases funcionan como oraciones subordinadas que muestran la relación entre la idea principal y las subordinadas:

When she graduated from college, she went to New York in search of a job. (oración subordinada)

Having graduated from college, she went to New York in search of a job.(“verbal” phrase, modificando a she)

Los verbals se usan de la siguiente manera:

Infinitives– un infinitivo es [1] la forma base de un verbo (con o sin “to”) o [2] toda frase verbal que puede ser usada con “to” para funcionar como sustantivo [noun], adjetivo [adjective] o adverbio [adverb].

intención de hacer en el futuro porque en el pasado se ha hecho un plan o se ha tomado la decisión de hacerlo) única-mente se utilizará be going to.

3) La forma progresiva / continua de be going to es: be going to + be + base form + ing.


Formas: Voz Activa: Voz Pasiva:

Present (to) ask, (to) be asking (to) be asked

Past (to) have asked (to) have been asked

(to) have been asking

Principales usos:

Sujeto:To be called by the IRS would make anyone nervous. Objeto:He does not like to express his opinion. Modificador (adjetivo):I have plenty of work to do. (modifica “work”) Modificador (adverbio): The students came to learn Russian. (modifica “came”) Frase modificando la cláusula principal:To tell the truth, he is a bore. Infinitivos divididos [split infinitives] – en ocasiones, un adverbio puede aparecer dentro de la construcción infinitiva: to go to boldly go

to see to ever see

Participios – un participio es una forma verbal que termina en –ing o –ed, usado como modificador.


Present asking being asked

Past having asked asked, having been asked

Principales usos:

Modificador de un sustantivo:a smiling candidate; a clogged drain

Frase de participio modificando un sustantivo:The candidate getting a majority of the votes will be nominated.

Frase modificando la cláusula principal:Everything considered, a portable typewriter seems the most practical option.

Gerundios – un gerundio es una forma verbal que termina en –ing, usado como sustantivo.


Present asking being asked

Past having asked having been asked

Principales usos:

Como sujeto:Having been asked made him happy. En frase, como sujeto:Taking anthropologyopened a whole new field for me. Como objeto:He taught dancing.


Como complemento:Seeing is believing. (Sí, seeing también es un gerundio.) Como modificador de un sustantivo: the dining room, a fishing boat. Como aposición:She had only one hobby, collecting gold coins.

Los gerunds pueden estar precedidos por the y seguidos por of en algunas expresiones formales:

the changing of the guard

the making of the president

the parting of the waters

4.3.1 Gerunds and Infinitives Preceded by Verbs [Gerundios e Infinitivos precedidos por verbos]

En inglés existe una serie de verbos que van seguidos por un gerundio, por un infinitivo o por cualquiera de los dos. En algunos casos, el uso del gerundio o del infinitivo indistintamente puede ocasionar confusiones en la idea que transmite.

Dicho concepto puede verse claramente en los siguientes ejemplos:

Stop + gerund:When the professor entered the room, the students stopped talking.

Stop + infinitive:When I was walking down the street, I ran into an old friend. I stopped to talk to him. (I stopped walking in order to talk to him).

A continuación encontrará listas con las distintas combinaciones verbo / gerundio, verbo / infinitivo, verbo / gerundio o infinitivo con ejemplos para ilustrar su uso.

4.3.1.a Verbos seguidos por Gerundios

admit

advise

anticipate

appreciate

avoid

complete

consider

delay

deny

discuss

dislike

She admits lying about the crime.

He advised talking to a lawyer.

We anticipate finding a solution.

They appreciate seeing friendly faces.

She avoids participating in

discussions.

We will complete checking the area.

They have considered filing a lawsuit.

He may delay accepting the

nomination.

She must deny knowing anything.

He should discuss trying an alternative.

mind

miss

postpone

practice

quit

recall

recollect

recommend

regret

remember

resent

I don't mind taking care of my pets.

We will miss having lunch together.

They must postpone flying until later.

He has practiced diving for a month.

They quit smoking for health reasons.

I don't recall telling you that.

She recollects having a cat called Kit.

He recommends getting an expert.

We regret giving you such bad news.

She remembers holding her first baby.

They resent waiting in line for hours.


enjoy

finish

forget

go*

keep

mention

I would dislike seeing her too.

We enjoyed visiting the family.

They finally finished building the

house.

He will never forget watching her go.

She might go dancing tonight.

Jim keeps thinking about Linda.

Did they mention going on a trip?

resist

risk

stop

suggest

tolerate

understand

He can't resist tempting his luck.

He will risk losing everything he has.

They stopped working at noon.

She suggested traveling to Italy.

I won't tolerate screaming children.

I can't understand his quitting the job.

*Go es seguido por un gerundio en ciertas expresiones idiomáticas para expresar, en general, actividades recreativas:

go birdwatching go hiking go sightseeing

go boating go hunting go skating

go bowling go jogging go skiing

go camping go mountain climbing go sledding

go canoeing go running go swimming

go dancing go sailing go tobogganing

go fishing go shopping go window shopping

Algunas expresiones especiales van seguidas por gerundios:

have fun

have a good time

have trouble

have difficulty

have a hard time

have a difficult time

John had fun swimming in the lake.

Beth will have a good time singing at the karaoke bar.

Lou has trouble understanding algebra.

The mechanic had difficulty changing the oil.

The team may have a hard time playing in Mexico.

Sue is having a difficult time adjusting to change.

spend + expresión de tiempo o dinero + gerund

waste + expresión de tiempo o dinero + gerund

Jack spends too much money on useless artifacts.

Little George wastes countless hours playing cards.

sit + expresión de lugar + gerund

stand + expresión de lugar + gerund

lie + expresión de lugar + gerund

He sits near the door waiting for her autograph.

The man stood on the street leaning against a wall.

She just lies on the sofa all day watching television.

find + sustantivo/pronombre + gerund

Sam found the children playing soccer in the kitchen.


catch + sustantivo/pronombre + gerund

Catch y find en este caso significan discover.

Bob caught a woman stealing secrets from his firm.

Catch often expresses anger or displeasure.

4.3.1.b Verbos seguidos por Infinitivos

Infinitive of Purpose: Los infinitivos pueden ser usados para expresar propósito cuando se reemplaza la

expresión in order to. En tales casos, responden a la pregunta "Why?"

Tom asked for an appointment in order to apply for the job.

Tom asked for an appointment to apply for the job.

Why did Tom ask for an appointment? In order to apply/to apply for the job.

VERBOS SEGUIDOS INMEDIATAMENTE POR UN INFINITIVO

afford

agree

appear

arrange

ask

beg

care

claim

consent

decide

demand

deserve

expect

fail

forget

hesitate

hope

We can't afford to lose the game this time.

She has agreed to find a solution.

Sue appears to be angry.

They arranged to have a new meeting tonight.

Bill asked to start as soon as possible.

He is begging to go on the camping expedition.

Do you care to take a seat while you wait?

She claims to be the best driver in the world.

He did not consent to obey the tax law.

We decided to continue without him.

They demand to see the governor.

You deserve to get a second chance.

Ann expects to graduate next year.

John failed to appear in court yesterday.

Charles forgot to answer the last question.

I won't hesitate to tell the truth.

We hope to finish our project by next week.

manage

mean

need

offer

plan

prepare

pretend

promise

refuse

regret

remember

seem

struggle

swear

threaten

volunteer

wait

They have managed to control

the oil spill.

He didn't mean to hurt your

feelings.

Jim needs to learn a few things

about love.

The therapist offered to teach

him .

We're planning to visit

Bariloche.

She must prepare to accept the

truth.

He pretended not to care about

you.

Jack promised to return

tomorrow.

They refuse to leave the

building.

We regret to inform you such

sad news.

Meg remembered to bring the

camera.

He seems to ignore the


intend*

Learn

They intend to rival with our project.

That child learned to read at the age of three.

want

wish

situation.

We struggled to catch the

running cat.

She swore to keep quiet.

They threatened to abandon

their jobs.

He will volunteer to donate

blood.

You must wait to see Mr.

Peters.

Bess will probably want to

come with us.

He wishes to win the

competition.

VERBOS SEGUIDOS POR UN SUSTANTIVO / PRONOMBRE + UN INFINITIVO

advise**

allow

ask

beg

cause

challenge

convince

dare

encourage

expect

forbid

force

Hire

He advised his patient to lose some weight.

Joan allowed him to leave early.

We asked George to prepare dinner.

She begged us to help her with her problem.

The fever caused him to feel worse.

Kate challenged Pete to sing karaoke tonight.

Dr. Evans must convince Dan to stop smoking.

Joe dared his brother to race the marathon.

Her teacher encouraged her to take the test.

His boss expected him to work on Sundays.

Her parents forbade her to go to the stadium.

I won't force you to take your medication.

We hired a lady to clean the house.

instruct

invite

need

order

permit

persuade

remind

require

teach

tell

urge

want

warn

The chief instructed the men to

follow him.

The secretary invited us to take a

seat.

Betty needs to write some letters

right now.

Mrs. Lee ordered them not to

touch the cake.

Her father permitted Jill to visit

her cousin.

Danny persuaded Sally to buy a

guitar.

Don reminded Sam to drive

carefully.

The job requires you to use a

computer.

His mother taught Jim to read.

Mrs. Smith told us to wait here.

The firefighter urged us to go

immediately.

Ned wants to stay home tonight.

Mr. Custer warned them to

respect the rules.


*Intend es seguido por un infinitivo pero, a veces, puede ser seguido por un gerundiosin cambio en significado:

I intend to visit you next month./I intend visiting you next month.

**Advise: Se usa un gerundio después de advise (activo) si no hay un sustantivo/pronombre objeto:

She advised seeing a doctor.

She advised me to see a doctor. I was advised to see a doctor.

4.3.1.c Verbos seguidos de Infinitivos o de Gerundios

Algunos verbos puede ir seguidos de un infinitivo o de un gerundio. En ocasiones, no habrá diferencia en significado,

como ocurre con el primer grupo de verbos. En ocasiones, como ocurre con los verbos del segundo grupo, habrá una

diferencia en el significado.

VERBOS + INFINITIVO O GERUNDIO – SIN DIFERENCIA EN SIGNIFICADO

begin

can't bear

can't stand

continue

hate

like

love

prefer*

start

No hay diferencia en significado entre los siguientes ejemplos:

Peter can't stand to watch people suffering./Peter can't stand watching people suffering.

Late at night it began to snow./Late at night it began snowing.

Si el verbo se usa en un tiempo continuo / progresivo, debe ir seguido por un infinitivo (no un gerundio).

It was late and it was beginning to snow heavily.

VERBOS + INFINITIVO O GERUNDIO – CON DIFERENCIA EN SIGNIFICADO

forget regret

remember try

Forget + infinitive = olvidar realizar o cumplir con una responsibilidad, obligación o tarea.

Bill always forgets to hand in his homework on time.

Remember + infinitive = recordar realizar o cumplir con una responsibilidad, obligación o tarea.


David often remembers to buy the newspaper on his way to work.

Forget + gerund = olvidar algo que ocurrió en el pasado. Generalmente, ocurre en oraciones negativas:

She will never forget holding her first baby in her arms.

También puede ocurrir en preguntas:

Can she ever forget holding her first baby in her arms?

Remember + gerund = recordar (acordarse de) algo que ocurrió en el pasado.

She still remembers holding her first baby in her arms.

Regret + infinitive = lamentar tener que decir o informar a alguien sobre alguna mala noticia.

We regret to inform you that you were not chosen for this project.

Regret + gerund = lamentar algo que ocurrió en el pasado.

Sharon will always regret telling him her secret. He can't seem to keep his mouth shut.

Try + infinitive = hacer un esfuerzo.

The mathematician is trying to solve an extremely difficult equation in record time.

Try + gerund = experimentar con un acercamiento nuevo o diferente para ver si funciona.

E.g.: John was home with his baby. When the baby started crying, he tried changing the diapers. But the

baby continued crying. He then tried feeding her a bottle of formula. She finished the bottle and after smiling at

him, she started crying again. Finally, he called his wife. He tried reading a story to the baby. A few minutes later,

she fell asleep.

*Prefer + gerund: Emma prefers watching a movie at home to attending the reception.

Prefer + infinitive: Emma prefers to watch a movie at home than (to) attend the reception.

4.4Voice: Active versus Passive [Voz: Activa vs. Pasiva]

La voz se refiere a otra relación entre el verbo y su sujeto. Cuando el sujeto realiza la acción expresada por el verbo, el verbo está en voz activa:


The companypromotedthe manager.

The companyhas givenMiss Aikens an increase in pay.

The secretarytyped the letters.

Cuando el sujeto en cierto modo recibe la acción expresada por el verbo, el verbo está en voz pasiva:

The manager was promoted last week.

Miss Aikenshas been given an increase in pay.

The letterswere typed by the secretary.

La voz pasiva consiste de una forma del verbo be más el participio pasado del verbo:

be + past participle (o 3era columna)

Active voice The general chose his aide.

Passive voice The aide was chosen by the general.

Active voice The secretary will type the letter.

Passive voice The letter will be typed by the secretary.

S V O

ACTIVE: Beth created that sculpture

S V

PASSIVE: That sculpture was created by Beth.

Forma de pasivo: be + past participle

En el pasivo, el objeto de un verbo activo

se convierte en el sujeto del verbo pasivo:

“the sculpture” se convierte en el sujeto del

verbo pasivo. Ambas oraciones tienen el

mismo significado.

ACTIVE: Jane comes tomorrow.

PASSIVE: Not possible

Sólo los verbos transitivos (verbos que

van seguidos de un objeto) son usados en

voz pasiva. Esto no es posible con verbos

intransitivos tales como happen,

sleep, come, y seem.


ACTIVE PASSIVE

Simple present Bob teaches Joe Joe is taught by Bob

Present progressive Bob is teaching Joe Joe is being taught by Bob

Present perfect Bob has taught Joe Joe has been taught by Bob

Simple past Bob Taught Joe Joe was taught by Bob

Past progressive Bob was teaching Joe Joe was being taught by Bob

Past perfect Bob had taught Joe Joe had been taught by Bob

Simple future Bob will teach Joe Joe will be taught by Bob

Be going to Bob is going to teach Joe Joe is going to be taught by Bob

Future perfect* Bob will have taught Joe Joe will have been taught by Bob

*Las formas progresivas del present perfect, past perfect, future, y future perfect se usan rara vez en voz pasiva.

Voz Pasiva de Auxiliares de Modo y Expresiones Similares

THE PASSIVE FORM: modal + be + past participle

Tim will be brought to the party.

The door can’tbe opened.

Students shouldbe asked to pay attention.

May we be excused from choir practice?

That homework had better be handed in on time.

The phone bill ought to be paid by next Friday.

The teacher has tobe informed about the incident.

A meeting is supposed tobe scheduled for next month.

THE PAST-PASSIVE FORM: modal + have been + past participle

The phone bill should have been paid last week.

That building musthave been designed by a very talented architect.

Janet ought to have been told about the additional material for the test.

4.5 Modal Auxiliaries


[Auxiliares de modo]

Los “modal auxiliaries” son verbos auxiliares que brindan más información acerca de la función del verbo que los sigue. A pesar de que tienen una gran variedad de funciones comunicativas, éstas pueden cubrir desde la posibilidad hasta la necesidad. En el marco de esta escalahay dos divisiones funcionales:

a.una relacionada con la posilidad y necesidad en términos de libertad de acción (incluyendohabilidad, permiso y obligación)

b.y la otra (excluyendo a “shall”) que se ocupa de la posibilidad teórica de oraciones que sean reales o no, incluyendoprobabilidad y certeza.

4.5 Modal Auxiliaries and Similar Expressions [Auxiliares de modo y expresiones similiares]

AUXILIARY

USOS

PRESENT/FUTURE

PAST

May

Hacer pedidos

respetuosos

May I ask you a question

about the test?

Dar permiso

formalmente

You may start answering

the test.

Menos de

50% certeza

I don't know where he is.

He may be at home today.

He may have been in Jujuy yesterday.

Might

Menos de

50% certeza

I don't know where he is.

He might be at home

now.

He might have been in Jujuy last night.

Should

Decir que algo

es aconsejable

Ben should go to the

doctor.

He should have gone to the doctor.

90% de

certeza

Dan is perfect. He should

get the job.

I'm shocked! Dan should have gotten the job.

ought to

Decir que algo

es aconsejable

Ben ought to go to the

doctor.

He ought to have gone to the doctor.

90% de

certeza

Dan is perfect. He ought

to get the job.

I'm shocked! Dan ought to have gotten the job.

had better

Decir que algo

You had better study, or


es aconsejable

con riesgo de

consecuencia

negativa.

you won't pass the test.

be supposed

to

Expresar

expectativa

The train is supposed to

leave at 8:00 A.M.

The train was supposed to leave at 8:00. It's late.

be to

Fuerte

expectativa

The employees are to

arrive on time.

You were to arrive on time. Talk to your supervisor.

Must

Fuerte

necesidad

(obligación)

We must help our

parents. They need us.

We had to help our parents. They needed us.

Prohibición

(en su forma

negativa)

You must not take

anything from strangers.

95% certeza

He hasn't come. He must

have a problem.

Joe didn't come. He must have had a problem.

have to

Expresar

necesidad

We have to help our

parents. They need our

help.

We had to help our parents. They needed our help.

Expresa falta

de necesidad

(en su forma

negativa)

We don't have to help our

parents. It's not urgent.

We didn't have to help our parents. It wasn't urgent.

have got to

Expresar

necesidad

We have got to help our

parents. They need our

help.

We had to help our parents. They needed our help.


AUXILIARY

USOS

PRESENT/FUTURE

PAST

will

Decir que algo

es aconsejable

Will you please lower

your voice?

Expresa

voluntad de

hacer algo

Don't get up. I'll answer

the phone for you.

100% certeza

Bert will be here on

time. He's always

punctual.

be going to

Expresar planes

previamente

definidos

Al's going to write the

report when he gets the

data.

Al was going to write it, but he didn't get the data.

100% certeza

Bert's going to be here

on time. He's always

punctual.

can

Expresar

habilidad/Posib

ilidad

Dave can play tennis

like a champion.

Dave could play tennis like a champion when he was

young, but now he can't. He has arthritis.

Pedidos

respetuosos

informales

Can I ask you a favor?

Dar permiso

informalmente

You can borrow my

bike, just for today.

Expresar

imposibilidad

(en negativo)

I don't believe you. That

can't be true!

I still don't believe you. That can't have been true!

could

Expresar

habilidad en el

pasado

Dave could play tennis when he was young and didn't

have arthritis.

Hacer pedidos

respetuosos

Could I ask you a favor?

Sugerencias

You could tell the doctor

to check your eyes.

You could have told the doctor to check your eyes.

Menos de 50%

certeza

I don't know where he

is. He could still be in

Jujuy.

He could have been in Jujuy or Bolivia.

Expresar

imposibilidad

I don't believe you. That

couldn't be true!

I still don't believe you. That couldn't have been true!


*Used to expresa un hábito, actividad o situación que existió en el pasado pero que no existe hoy.Siempre se usa en su forma de pasado. Es una expresión de modo y va seguida de un verbo en su forma base.

Be used to = be accustomed to. NO es una expresión de modo y va seguida de un gerundio. Get used to = get accustomed to, geten el sentido debecome [tornarse, convertirse, hacerse]. Estas no son expresiones de modo y van seguidas de un gerundio.

Compare: Joseph lives in Alaska. Many years ago, he used to live in Jamaica.

The change was very difficult but he gradually got used to living in a cold climate.

Now Joseph loves Alaska. He is so used to living there that he participates in every expedition going North.

(en negativo)

be able to

Expresar

habilidad

I am able to win today

and I will be able to win

tomorrow.

Before I got sick, I was able to win every match.

AUXILIARY

USES

PRESENT/FUTURE

PAST

Would

Hacer pedidos

respetuosos

Would you please lower

your voice?

Would you mind if we

finished the memos

later?

Would you mind

finishing the memos

now?

Expresar

preferencia

I would rather watch a

video at home than go

tothe play.

I would rather have done what I wanted.

Hablar de

hábitos en el

pasado

When I was young, I would call my friends in Ireland

every month.

used to*

Hablar de

hábitos en el

pasado

I used to call my friends in Ireland every month .

Shall

Preguntas

respetuosas

para hacer

sugerencias

It's late and we are

about to close the store.

Shall I lock the door?


4.6 Conditionals [Condicionales]

Resumen Gráfico de uso del Verbo en Oraciones Condicionales

Las cláusulas condicionales se usan para hablar de una situación posible y sus resultados.

Las cláusulas condicionales empiezan con IF. Estas cláusulas necesitan de una cláusula principal que expresa el resultado de la condición y junto con ésta integra una oración completa. Para ello, la cláusula condicional puede venir antes o después de la cláusula principal (cláusula de resultado).

Significado de la

Cláusula

Forma Verbal en

la Cláusula de IF

Forma Verbal en la

Cláusula de

Resultado

Ejemplo

Condicional 0:

Real en el presente /

futuro (hechos que

siempre son verdaderos)

Simple present

Simple present /

simple future

If I have the

ingredients, I bake a

cake every week.

Condicional 1:

Real en el futuro /

predicción futura

Simple present Simple future

If I have the

ingredients, I will bake a cake every

week.

Condicional 2:

Irreal en el presente /

futuro (una condición

improbable)

Simple past

would + simple form

If I had the

ingredients, I would bake a cake now. (En

realidad, no tengo los

ingredientes, así que no

haré la torta.)

Condicional 3:

Irreal en el pasado

(se refiere al pasado y

puesto que no se puede

cambiar lo que ya ocurrió,

resulta una condición

imposible de modificar)

Past perfect

would have + past

participle

If I had had the

ingredients, I would have

baked a cake

yesterday. (En

realidad, no tenía los

ingredientes, así que no

hice la torta.)


5. Pronouns[Pronombres]

El pronombre es una palabra que funciona como un sustantivo pero que no nombra a una persona, lugar u objeto específico.

El pronombre sustituye a un sustantivo previamente nombrado y mantiene su relación con éste, que es llamado antecedente.

5.1 Subject Pronouns:

Son los que realizan la acción (sujetos).

Ej: We work very hard.

5.2 Object Pronouns:

Son los que reciben la acción del verbo o son objeto de una preposición.

PRONOMBRES PERSONALES

Pronombre Primera Persona Segunda Persona Tercera Persona

Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural

Subject / Sujeto I We You You He / She / It They

Object / Objeto Me Us You You Him / Her / It Them

Possessive / Posesivos Mine Ours Yours Yours His / Hers Theirs

Posses. Adjectives / Adj Pos My Our Your Your His / Her / Its Their

Reflexive / Reflexivos Myself Ourselves Yourself Yourselves Him/Her/Itself Themselves

Singular Plural Singular Plural

Demonstrative / Demostrat. This These That Those


Ej: Betty likes to walk. Walking makes her happy. (El caminar la hace feliz.)

Tom cooked a great dinner. He cooked the dinner forus.

He works hard. The work is hard forhim.

5.3 Possessive Pronouns: Se ubican después del verbo y se usan sin ser seguidos por ningún sustantivo. No se utilizan para las cosas porque indican posesión.

Ej: This beautiful car is mine.

5.4 Possessive Adjectives:

Se llaman "adjetivos" porque acompañan a un sustantivo. Siempre van inmediatamente seguidos por un sustantivo, pues no pueden usarse solos.

Ej: Mycar is beautiful.

5.5 Reflexive Pronouns:

Se llaman así porque reflejan la acción y usualmente se relacionan con el sujeto de la oración. A veces se utilizan para hacer énfasis. Con la expresión by usualmente significa que realizó la acción solo, sin ayuda.

Ej: He looked at himself in the mirror.

He answered the phone himself.

(No dejó que lo contestara otro, esta vez no delegó.)

She lives byherself. (Vive sola, sin compañía.)

I made this car bymyself. (Lo hice solo, sin ayuda.)

5.6 Demonstrative Pronouns:

Demuestran con mayor claridad el objeto que quiero.

Ej: I want this book and not that one.

I like these and not those shoes.

5.7 Relative Pronouns:

Who se refiere a personas, which generalmente se refiere a animales u objetos, y that se refiere a personas, animales u objetos.

who which that whom whose of which


Ej: Students who [o that] plan to enter the university in the fall quarter should

forward transcripts of their records to the registrar.

Dogs that [o which] are within the city limits must be vaccinated.

The man whose house we visited is an architect.

Whom is the report for?

5.8 Indefinite Pronouns:

Existe una serie de términos indefinidos que a menudo funcionan como pronombres:

all Both everything nobody Several

another Each few none Some

any eachone many no one somebody

anybody Either most nothing someone

anyone Everybody much One something

anything Everyone neither other Such

5.9 Reciprocal Pronouns:

relacionan la acción entre una o más cosas:

Each other one another

6. Numbers and Quantifiers [Números y Expresiones de Cantidad]


6.1 Cardinal Numbers [Números Cardinales]

6.2 Ordinal Numbers [Números ordinales]

1 one 11 eleven 21 twenty-one 100 one hundred / a

hundred

2 two 12 twelve 22 twenty-two

3 three 13 thirteen 23 twenty-three 1.000 one thousand / a

thousand

4 four 14 fourteen 30 Thirty

5 five 15 fifteen 40 Forty 1.000.000 one million / a

million

6 six 16 sixteen 50 Fifty

7 seven 17 seventeen 60 Sixty 1.000.000.000 one billion

8 eight 18 eighteen 70 seventy

9 nine 19 nineteen 80 Eighty

10 ten 20 twenty 90 Ninety

1st first 11th eleventh 21st twenty-first

2nd second 12th twelfth 22nd twenty-second

3rd third 13th thirteenth 23rd twenty-third

4th fourth 14th fourteenth 30th thirtieth

5th fifth 15th fifteenth 40th fortieth

6th sixth 16th sixteenth 50th fiftieth

7th seventh 17th seventeenth 60th sixtieth

8th eighth 18th eighteenth 70th seventieth

9th ninth 19th nineteenth 80th eightieth

10th tenth 20th twentieth 90th ninetieth


6.3 Special considerations and expressions with numbers and symbols [Consideraciones y expresiones especiales con números y símbolos]

En inglés americano, se utiliza la coma (,) para separar los miles en números superiores a 999.

En inglés americano, se utiliza el punto (.) para los decimales.

Decimal [decimal]

3.50= three point fifty / three point five oh /three-fifty

0.25= oh point twenty-five

Fracción [fraction]

½ = one half / a half

¼ = one fourth / a fourth

Porcentaje [percentage]

50%= fifty per cent

25%= twenty-five per cent

Operaciones:

Sustantivo / Verbo

3 + 2 = 5 – three plus two equals five addition / add

3 – 2 = 1 – three minus two equals one subtraction / subtract

3 x 2 = 6 – three times two equals six multiplication/ multiply

3 / 2 = 1.5 – three divided by two equals one point fivedivision / divide

6.4 Quantifiers [expresiones de cantidad]


Una expresión de cantidad puede preceder a un sustantivo. Algunas expresiones de cantidad son

usadas únicamente con sustantivos contables. Algunos sólo se usan con sustantivos incontables y

otros con cualquiera de los dos.

EXPRESIONES DE

CANTIDAD

USADOS CON SUSTANTIVOS

CONTABLES

USADOS CON

SUSTANTIVOS

INCONTABLES

one

another

each

every

one pear

another pear

each pear

every pear

----- no usado -----

----- no usado -----

----- no usado -----

----- no usado -----

two

both

a couple of

three, four...

a few

few

fewer

several

many

too many

a number of

two pears

both pears

a couple of pears

three pears, four pears...

a few pears

few pears

fewer pears

several pears

many pears

too many pears

a number of pears

----- no usado -----

----- no usado -----

----- no usado -----

----- no usado -----

----- no usado -----

----- no usado -----

----- no usado -----

----- no usado -----

----- no usado -----

----- no usado -----

----- no usado -----

a bit of

a little

little

less

much

too much

a great deal of

----- no usado -----

----- no usado -----

----- no usado -----

----- no usado -----

----- no usado -----

----- no usado -----

----- no usado -----

a bit of sugar

a little sugar

little sugar

less sugar

much sugar

too much sugar

a great deal of sugar

the other

other

the other pear(s)

other pears

the other sugar

other sugar


7. Nouns [sustantivos] La definición de sustantivo brinda un buen punto de partida para entender de qué se trata: es el “nombre” de una persona, lugar, objeto o concepto.

not any/no

some

a lot of

lots of

plenty of

enough

more

most

all

not any pears/no pears

some pears

a lot of pears

lots of pears

plenty of pears

enough pears

more pears

most pears

all pears

not any sugar/no sugar

some sugar

a lot of sugar

lots of sugar

plenty of sugar

enough sugar

more sugar

most sugar

all sugar


Los sustantivos se dividen en:

Concretos [concrete] Abstractos [abstract]

Objetos que podemos observar Cualidades sobre las que podemos

de manera directa pensar pero no ver

author authorship

sister sisterhood

boy boyhood

friend friendship

Comunes [common] Propios [proper]

El nombre dado en general a El nombre especial dado a una persona,

todos los miembros de un familia, lugar, organización, u objeto en

grupo de objetos o seres particular

man, citizen, pacifist Mahatma Ghandi

place, stadium, arena Orfeo

building, hotel Sheraton

man, astronaut, explorer Neil Armstrong

place, unit, province Córdoba

Collective [colectivos]

El nombre dado a grupos de individuos

fleet

army

company

committee

Countable [contables] Uncountable [incontables]*

El nombre dado a objetos que son El nombre dado a masas o agregados no

percibidos como unidades individuales definibles como unidades individuales

chair furniture


suitcase baggage o luggage

coin cash

necklace jewelry

* Los uncountable nouns también son conocidos como “mass nouns”o “non-count nouns”.

7.1 Some of the more common uncountable nouns [Algunos de los sustantivos incontables más comunes]

GRUPOS COMPUESTOS DE ITEMS SIMILARES

baggage/luggage fruit jewelry makeup

clothing furniture junk/stuff money/cash/change

equipment garbage machinery scenery

food hardware mail/postage traffic....

LÍQUIDOS: coffee, juice, milk, soda/cola, soup, tea, water,

oil, gasoline, blood....

SÓLIDOS: bread, butter, cheese, ice, meat,

gold, iron, silver,

glass, paper, wood, cotton, wool....

GASES: air, oxygen, steam,

nitrogen,

pollution, smoke, smog....

PARTÍCULAS: corn, flour, pepper, rice, salt, sugar, wheat,

chalk, dirt, dust, sand,

grass,

hair.....

ABSTRACTOS

beauty health knowledge progress

confidence help laughter recreation


7.2 Plural of nouns [plural de los sustantivos]

La mayoría de los sustantivos simplemente agregan –s en el plural.

One / a

Two (o más)

dog

dogs

courage honesty luck significance

education hospitality music sleep

enjoyment importance patience truth

fun intelligence peace violence

happiness justice pride wealth....

advice, information, news, evidence, proof

time, space, energy

homework, work

grammar, slang, vocabulary

Idiomas: Arabic, Chinese, English, Spanish....

Campos de Estudio: chemistry, engineering, history, literature, psychology, science....

Recreación: baseball, bridge, chess, poker, soccer, tennis, painting, sculpting....

Actividades Generales: driving, shopping, studying, traveling, walking....

FENÓMENOS NATURALES

weather hail lightning sunshine darkness electricity

dew heat rain thunder light fire

fog humidity snow wind gravity


stamp stamps

computer

computers

Los sustantivos que terminan en s, ss, sh, ch, x agregan -es para formar el plural.

One / a

Two (o más)

bus

buses

class

classes

crash

crashes

match

matches

box

boxes

Los sustantivos que terminan en una consonante + y, cambian la y por ies.

One / a

Two (o más)

city

cities

baby

babies


body bodies

Pero si el sustantivo termina en vocal + y, la y no cambia y sólo agrega s.

One / a

Two (o más)

monkey

monkeys

day

days

Muchos sustantivos que terminan en f, para el plural cambiande favy luego agreganes.

One / a

Two (o más)

half

halves

wolf

wolves

Muchos sustantivos presentan forma irregular en el plural:

One / a

Two (o más)

woman

women

man

men


child children

foot

feet

7.3 Possesives [posesivos]

Para mostrar posesión, se agrega un apóstrofe y s (‘s) al sustantivo singular y tan sólo un apóstrofe al plural. Si el sustantivo plural no termina en s, se agrega ‘s

The girl’s doll The girls’ dolls

The child’s mother The children’s mother

8. Adjectives and Adverbs [adjetivos y adverbios] Si consideramos el valor de las comunicaciones multimediales de nuestros días, una de las ideas que viene a la mente es el colorido y los formatos.


Si tuviéramos que describir estos coloridos y formatos, las formas de las cosas, el modo en que se interrelacionan a una persona no vidente, necesitaríamos tener un vocabulario muy amplio y muy preciso.

Afortunadamente, la lengua, sea inglesa o española, o cualquiera sea su origen, nos proporciona los elementos necesarios para poder alcanzar medianamente dicho objetivo.

Si necesitamos describir un sustantivo (a noun), un objeto, algo físico o algo abstracto, o un equivalente del sustantivo (a pronoun) tenemos los adjetivos:

A cheerful smile (cheerful habla del sustantivo smile)

The child is quick (quick habla del sustantivo child)

We are alive (alive habla del pronombre we)

Si lo que necesitamos es describir algún atributo de un verbo, un adjetivo, otro adverbio o de una oración entera, necesitamos usar un adverbio:

She smiled cheerfully. (cheerfully modifica al verbo smiled)

The engine is barely warm. (barely modifica al adjetivo warm)

The engine idled veryroughly. (very modifica al adverbio roughly)

Happily, the mechanic found the problem. (Happily modifica a la oración completa)

Los adjetivos y los adverbios permiten que el autor especifique y haga distinciones, por ejemplo: en lugar de decir shelf, delimita cuál shelf al usar lower shelf.

Estos modificadores pueden agregar detalles descriptivos, límitar o hacer más definido el significado de una palabra clave o calificar oraciones.

En inglés, los adjetivos casi siempre anteceden a la palabra que describen, es decir van antes del sustantivo o del pronombre.

The long report took us four hours to complete.

The unhappy accountant returned to his office without saying a word.

Los adverbios, por su parte, se ubican:

después del verbo al que modifican:

She worked differently from the others.

antes del adjetivo o del adverbio al que modifican:

The engine is barely warm.

The engine idled very roughly.

Los adjetivos y los adverbios toman formas comparativas y superlativas.


8.1 Comparison of Adjectives and Adverbs [Comparación de Adjetivos y Adverbios]

FORMAS COMPARATIVAS Y SUPERLATIVAS

La forma comparativa se usa para comparar una persona o un objeto con

otro.

La forma superlativa se usa al comparar tres o más personas u objetos.

Agregar er y est para formar el comparativo y superlativo de la mayoría de

los adjetivos y adverbios de una sola sílaba:

tall taller the tallest fast Faster the fastest

warm warmer the warmest hard Harder the hardest

Algunos adjetivos como big, fat, hot, sad, wet, duplican la consonante:

fat fatter the fattest

Algunos adjetivos y adverbios como large, nice, safe, fine, late, agregan r y st:

safe safer the safest

late later the latest

Con adjetivos como lucky y adverbs como early, usar i en lugar de y y

agregue er y est:

lucky luckier the luckiest

early earlier the earliest

Algunos adjetivos de dos sílabas como happy, quiet, simple y sus

adverbios tienen dos formas comparativas y superlativas:

narrow narrower the narrowest

narrowly narrowlier the narrowliest

narrow more narrow most narrow

narrowly more

narrowly

the most narrowly

Con la mayoría de los adjetivos y adverbios de dos y tres sílabas, use

more y the most:

beautiful more the most beautiful


beautiful

careless more

careless

the most careless

bravely more bravely the most bravely

strongly more

strongly

the most strongly

FORMAS COMPARATIVAS Y SUPERLATIVAS QUE SE CONFUNDEN

Further y farther se refieren a distancia:

You must continue 5 kms further/farther in order to find the factory.

Further también significa "in addition, additional":

We've had no further flight data from the control tower.

Use elder/the eldest antes de un sustantivo en referencia a personas en una

familia o comunidad:

She's my elder sister. She's the eldest daughter.

He's the eldest (person) in the community. The eldest person is the spiritual

leader.

Use older/the oldest para comparar personas y objetos:

She's older than you.

That tree is the oldest one in the forest.

Comparaciones Irregulares:

good / well better the best

bad worse the worst

much / many more the most

little less the least

Fórmulas:

adj./adv. + -er (than)more + adj./adv. + (than)the + adj./adv. + -est

as + adj./adv. + as not as + adj./adv. + as the + most + adj./adv.


less + adj./adv. + (than) aux + not + v + as + adv. + asthe + least +

adj./adv.

Ejemplos:

Bill is taller than Bob. Bob is more athletic than Brad. Brad is the

strongest of them all.

They all like tennis. Brad plays as well as Bill. Bill does not serve as

expertly as Bob.

Bob is the most gifted player. Brad and Bill are less serious. Bob is the least

amateur in the group.

8.2 Adverbs of Frequency [adverbios de frecuencia]

Los adverbios de frecuencia nos dicen con qué frecuencia ocurre o hacemos algo.

Los más comunes son:

• always

• almost always

• generally

• regularly

• usually

• normally

• frequently

• very often

• often

• sometimes

• hardly

• hardly ever

• seldom

• ever

• rarely

• almost never

• not... ever

• never

8.3 Expressions of Frequency [Expresiones de Frecuencia]

Las expresiones de frecuencia nos indican con qué frecuencia hacemos algo. Son indicadores de tiempo que aparecen al principio o al final de una oración.


Algunas de estas expresiones son:

every (day, week, month, year); every (two, three, four, etc.)(days, weeks, months, years); every other (day, week, month, year); twice (a day, a week, a month, a year); three (four, five, etc.) times (a day, a week, a month, a year); several times (a day, a week, a month, a year); once in a while.

9. Prepositions [Preposiciones] Las preposiciones, como dice el Dr. Paul Burtness en su Effective English for Colleges, son los tornillos y las tuercas de la lengua. Sin ellas, el discurso no tendría cohesión ni sentido.

Del mismo modo en que un automóvil no sería tal sin las tuercas y los tornillos que lo mantienen unido, las oraciones serían incomprensibles si no existieran las preposiciones dado que éstas contribuyen a establecer relaciones entre los elementos de la oración.

Para poder entender la importancia de las preposiciones, tomemos como ejemplo este texto:

Sin preposiciones:

The fall the vice-president planning consulted the director the Chicago office proposals expanding the computer facilities connection the transfer corporate headquarters that site the summer the following year.

Con preposiciones:

In the fall the vice-president for planning consulted the director ofthe Chicago office about proposalsfor expanding the computer facilities in connectionwith the transferof corporate headquarters to that site in the summer of the following year.

Hay 39 palabras en la oración de arriba. Once de ellas, es decir 27%, son preposiciones!

Además, observe que hay preposiciones que se repiten con frecuencia en la oración: in y of están usadas 3 veces y for, 2. Dicha repetición es una característica importante de las preposiciones.

A continuación, encontrará “algunas” preposiciones de uso común en el idioma inglés:

9.1 Prepositions of Time [Preposiciones de Tiempo]

before: -previous to a time Monday is the day before Tuesday. after: -subsequent to a time


Tuesday is the day after Monday. during: -for part of a period through, throughout: He worked during the day. (9 to 17 hs.) for an entire period and after He worked through/throughout the day. (9 to 21hs) at the same time as another event He worked during the Olympics. at around, at about: -at an approximate time She'll arrive at around/about 10 by: -no later than a time She'll be home by 10. by the time: -when She'll be home by the time you arrive. to: -minutes before the hour It's twenty to eight towards: -nearing a period of time It is towards midnight and she hasn't returned. between: -after a time and before another time She'll arrive between 9 and 10. within: -between now and a length of time She'll arrive within the hour. beyond, past: -after a time She remained at home beyond/past noon until: -up to, but not after a time She remained at home until noon. for: -during a length of time Jill has taught English for three years. since: -between a past time and now Jill has taught English since 1999. in: -a century, decade, year, season, month on: Bob's birthday is in June. a day, days, a date, dates Bob's birthday is on June 23rd. after a length of time Jeff will travel to Japan in a week. in time: -not too late for an event on time: -at the required time Sam arrived at the airport in time to greet Sue. Sue's flight was on time. on the dot: -at the exact minute The students must be here at 2 o'clock on the dot. at: -a specific time The students must be in class at 2 o'clock.


in the morning, afternoon, evening: at night: We have class in the afternoon. Some people prefer to travel at night. at present, at the moment: -now Mr. Jones is busy at present/at the moment. with: -at the same time as Many people must get up with the sun , in order to go to work. out of: ahead of: to be out of time: to have no time left to be ahead of time: to be early: We won't make it. We're out of time. Unlike us, Beth was ahead of time and caught the train. to run out of time: -use up remaining time. Mel was distracted and ran out of time to have lunch. up: time is up: -there is no official time remaining for a specific activity In order to win the competition, you must finish the painting before your time is up.

9.2 Prepositions of Place or Location [Preposiciones de lugar]

in: -a continent, a country, on: -a street, a floor at:-a building, a house or apartment a state, a city, a town a number Joe works in Washington, D.C. He works on the second floor. Joe works at the White House. a room, an area of a room an outside area a work area inside He works in the hall. He doesn't work on the entrance hall. He works at the top of the stairs. at home: -in one's own house at work: -at one's job at school: -attending classes at church: -attending services (mass) in: -the water, the air, the on: -facing a coast, a beach


at: -the coast, the beach environment Bill is swimming in the ocean. He has an apartment on the beach. He's at the beach with his family. the center, the middle the side, left, right, surface the beginning, start, end Jim's office is in the middle of It's on the right side of the building. It's the door at the beginning of the block. the hall. the north, south, east, west the north side, south side, east side, west side Lou's favorite region is in the He has to visit an art gallery on the south of France. east side of the city. a vehicle one cannot walk around a vehicle one can walk around on in (car/small boat/small plane/ (bus/train/ship/airplane/subway) helicopter) Meg came to work in a taxi. She didn't ride on the bus today. a comfortable chair a straight chair, a sofa, a couch Jack sinks in his reclining chair The child sat still on the hard steel every night and watches T.V. chair, as he waited for his father. in bed: -under the covers The children were in bed at eight p.m. on the bed: -on top of the covers

Their mother sat on the bed and read them a story. about, around, throughout: -in all areas of a place across: -in all areas of a flat surface After the earthquake, there were hundreds of damaged When the plate fell from her hands, tiny buildings throughout the city. porcelain pieces scattered across the floor. with: -in the same place as someone or something else Your husband is with mine at the stadium. above, over: below, beneath, under, underneath:

Letter A is above/over letter B. A Letter B is

Bbelow/beneath/under/underneath Letter A.

against: by, beside, next to:


Letter A is against letter B. AB CLetter B is by/beside/next to letter C. between:

Letter B is between letter A and letter C. A B C among: Number 5 is among the letters.

aaaaaaaaaaa aaaaaaaa5aa aaaaaaaaaaa on, on top of, upon: Letter A is on/on top of/upon the line. A off: Letter B is off the line.

B in, inside, within:

Letter A is in/inside/within the square figure. ^^^^^^ ^ A ^ ^^^^^^ out of, outside of: Letter B is out of/outside of the square figure.

^^^^^^ ^ A ^ B ^^^^^^ across from, opposite: in front of, ahead of: in back of, behind: Letter C is across from/ Letter B is in front of/ Letter A is in back of/ oppositethe Cashier. ahead of letter A. behind letter B.

A B C Cashier near, close to: far from: beyond: Letter A is near/ Letter C is far fromLetter D is beyond close toletter B.letter B.letter C.

A B C D at the top of: at the bottom of: Letter A is at the top of the page. Letter B is at the bottom of the page.

AZ


ZB on the top of: on the bottom of: Letter A is on the top of the box. Letter B is on the bottom of the box.

A C D B on the side: Letters C and D are on the sides of the box.

9.3 Prepositions of Direction [Preposiciones de Dirección]

across > around along, by > past in, into > out of onto > off over > through from, away from > to, toward > for back from > back to with > against up > down

10. Articles [Artículos]

A / AN (artículos indefinidos)

THE (artículo definido)

A bill


An invoice

The accounting books

Módulo 2

Unidad 2

Lectura 2: Técnicas de Lectura

Rápida (Skimming y Scanning)




Cuando hablamos de técnicas de lectura rápida, tenemos que pensar en que debemos conseguir entender el texto que tenemos frente a nosotros en el menor tiempo posible y de la forma más completa posible. Además, debemos ser capaces de identificar ideas, datos o conceptos puntuales que nos ayudarán a comprender la información específica que necesitemos.

Cuando leemos un periódico no lo leemos de la forma en que leemos un libro de texto, un informe o un balance. Según lo que tengamos que leer variaremos nuestro abordaje. No obstante, cuando de trabajo hablamos, el tiempo que dediquemos a obtener información de un texto, de una tabla, o de un gráfico, marcará la diferencia entre cumplir o no con objetivos preestablecidos y, en muchos casos, inamovibles.

Es por ello que es aconsejable abordar la lectura desde las técnicas de lectura veloz.

1. Skimming

Existen varias formas de describir el concepto de skimming:

Prelectura;

Lectura rápida y global dirigida a identificar a grandes rasgos el argumento, la estructura y las ideas principales de un texto;

Lectura mediante la identificación de bloques de información;

Lectura selectiva en la cual seleccionaremos la información más significativa que nos permita una visión esencial del texto;

Lectura que nos permite conectar el texto que estamos leyendo con el conocimiento que ya tenemos sobre un tema determinado en el menor tiempo posible;

Lectura que permite la rápida construcción mental de un resumen;

Lectura que nos permite enlazar ideas entre sí y comprender el texto en su conjunto.

Interferencias en la velocidad y la comprensión

Cuando leemos en silencio, tendemos a vocalizar, es decir a leer en voz baja. Nuestro cerebro ―escucha‖ las palabras en lugar de ―verlas‖. Este proceso de vocalización insume más tiempo que el de identificación lectora debido a que nuestra mente percibe la pronunciación palabra por palabra.

Además, tenemos la tendencia a leer palabra por palabra linealmente, cuando el cerebro humano es capaz de agrupar paquetes de palabras y de comprender el sentido del paquete completo.


En el skimming (prelectura) permitimos que nuestros ojos se fijen en palabras clave.

La lectura veloz tiene por objetivo poner en movimiento la capacidad no utilizada de la mente humana. Por ejemplo, ¿podremos interpretar el significado del siguiente texto?

La fnemoeanl cpaaicadd de la mntee hmnuaa, sgeún una invsetagiicón en la Uinevrsadid de Cmbraidge, dcie que no iomprta el oredn de las lrteas en una plabara, snio que la pirmrea y la úlitma lretas eétsn en el lguar croertco. Aqunue el rseto sea un dseatsre ttoal, uetsd aún prodá lerleo sin porlbemea. Esto ocerur pqruoe la mtene hmunaa no peude leer tdaos y cdaa una de las lrteas por sí saols, snio más bein la plabara cmoo un tdoo. Icnrbelíe, no?

Respuesta correcta al cuadro, al final del módulo.

Esta es una forma entretenida de demostrar cómo la mente humana es capaz de interpretar las palabras como un todo y no como las letras que las constituyen. Los lectores entrenados en lectura veloz han descubierto que la mente humana también es capaz de interpretar grupos de palabras como un todo.

Este proceso se llama ―chunking‖ que, traducido a efectos del procesamiento de información, sería el ―agrupamiento de trozos de información‖. En inglés, ―chunk‖ significa trozo, pedazo.

El proceso de ―chunking‖ incluye la lectura de bloques de palabras de una vez, lo que mejora la velocidad a la que se puede leer y también mejora la comprensión. No obstante, para lograr la velocidad necesaria, hay que evitar la vocalización mientras se lee.

Cuando logre derrotar la vocesita interior que lee palabra por palabra en su mente, será capaz de ver los grupos de palabras como unidades significativas y enfocarse en aquellos que tienen contenido.

Para poder entender este proceso con mayor claridad, vamos a practicarlo.

Si puede, imprima el siguiente ejercicio. Cubra con un pedazo de papel la lista de palabras. Deslizando el papel hacia abajo, lea las siete palabras tan rápido como pueda. Trate de no vocalizar a medida que lee, no trate de pronunciar las palabras en su mente. A medida que las lee, trate de contar del 1 al 10 (o más).

Lista de un palabra

review

timely

efficient

vary


advantage

lending

readily

revisión

puntualmente

eficaz

variar

beneficio

préstamo

fácilmente

¿Dejó de oír la vocecita en su cabeza?

Probemos el mismo proceso pero con grupos de tres palabras.

Éstas no podrá vocalizarlas ya que no es posible decir tres palabras al mismo tiempo. Fíjese además, en el movimiento de sus ojos. Debe ser un suave movimiento horizontal y vertical (de arriba abajo). Tratar de fijarse en cada palabra lo demorará.

A medida que vaya agregando ejercicios, trate de hacer más veloz el movimiento del papel al leer.

Lista de cuatro palabras

a continuing review of

to provide timely statements

of efficient financial information

may vary extensively between

to the advantage of

services for lending operations

is not readily recognized

una revisión continua de

proporcionar puntualmente estados contables

de eficaz información financiera

puede variar ampliamente entre

para el beneficio de


servicios para operaciones de préstamo

no es fácilmente reconocido

Ahora que ha leído las palabras originales, trate de escribir tantas como le sea posible recordar.

¿Qué tal le fue? ¿Bien? Recordemos que las siete primeras palabras ya las ha visto dos veces.

¿Le fue posible leer las palabras sin escuchar esa vocecita interior que las repite?

¿Leyó deslizando la vista de izquierda a derecha y de arriba abajo?

¿Logró retener las palabras en su memoria? ¿Qué fue lo que más le ayudó?

Ahora aumentemos a seis palabras y probemos aplicar lo planteado en las preguntas anteriores. A éstas sumemos una más: mientras lee, no mueva la cabeza de lado a lado. Mantenga la cabeza fija, deslice sus ojos por el texto, manteniendo la mirada ligeramente fija por encima de las frases y permita que sus ojos ―floten‖ página abajo. Intente leer las líneas, no las letras y las palabras.

Trate de deslizar la hoja de papel cada vez más rápido.

Lista de seis/siete palabras

review of the efficacy of these

the implementing agencies are made responsible

bank staff need to emphasize the

identify those sectors and key institutions

of auditing services for lending operations

even the concept of a public sector

bank requirements to provide timely financial statements

revisión de la eficacia de estos

los representantes de implementación serán responsables

el personal bancario debe poner énfasis en

identificar aquellos sectores e instituciones clave

servicios de auditoría para operaciones de préstamo

incluso el concepto de un sector público

requisitos bancarios para brindar estados contables puntualmente


¿Y ahora? Mucho mejor, ¿no?

Si lo consiguió, está logrando el objetivo de hacer un skimming mucho más efectivo.

La última clave para una lectura y comprensión veloz es no volver atrás sobre lo recién leído. Recuerde, estamos haciendo skimming – una prelectura – una lectura rápida - para entender a grandes rasgos aquello que luego leeremos a fondo.

Veamos una lectura típica con la que podemos encontrarnos y de qué manera vamos a abordar la técnica que hemos descripto anteriormente unida a otras técnicas de skimming.

“Truth and No Consequences”

Witnesses to securities fraud have had little incentive to tattle on their errant co-workers—or accomplices, as the case may be. Coming forward, after all, can put one's career, reputation, and wallet at risk. ―In terms of your legal exposure, there [has been] little or no incentive to step forward and report a violation [to the Securities and Exchange Commission]‖ says Russell Ryan, a partner at King & Spalding who spent a decade in SEC enforcement. But a new set of guidelines within the SEC aims to change things.

Borrowed from the American Department of Justice, the guidelines outline ―co-operation tools‖—formal written agreements with co-operating companies or individuals that could result in lesser penalties or no enforcement. Securities lawyers predict that if these tools are fully used by the SEC, they will lead to a higher number of enforcement actions but lower penalties.

Yet one of the strongest incentives for fraud witnesses to come forward is still missing: cash. Although whistle-blowers are protected under the Sarbanes-Oxley Act, the law has a very high burden of proof, and its only reward is the right to keep your job. Mary Schapiro, the SEC's chairman, has frequently asked Congress to give the SEC the authority to provide monetary awards to people who reveal violations, but to date, the only carrot the SEC can offer is no stick.

Extracted from:

CFO in focus

The finance function

Our monthly round-up from CFO.com: the difficulties of industry-switching, new anti-fraud measures and performance benchmarks, an unusual executive search, and more

Jan 26th 2010 | From The Economist online

http://www.economist.com/research/articlesBySubject/displaystory.cfm?subjectid=1290116&story_id=15384601

Otra forma de abordar la técnica de skimming es la de leer la primera oración de cada párrafo:



Witnesses to securities fraud have had little incentive to tattle on their errant co-workers—or accomplices, as the case may be. Coming forward, after all, can put one's career, reputation, and wallet at risk. ―In terms of your legal exposure, there [has been] little or no incentive to step forward and report a violation [to the Securities and Exchange Commission]‖ says Russell Ryan, a partner at King & Spalding who spent a decade in SEC enforcement. But a new set of guidelines within the SEC aims to change things.

Borrowed from the American Department of Justice, the guidelines outline ―co-operation tools‖—formal written agreements with co-operating companies or individuals that could result in lesser penalties or no enforcement. Securities lawyers predict that if these tools are fully used by the SEC, they will lead to a higher number of enforcement actions but lower penalties.

Yet one of the strongest incentives for fraud witnesses to come forward is still missing: cash. Although whistle-blowers are protected under the Sarbanes-Oxley Act, the law has a very high burden of proof, and its only reward is the right to keep your job. Mary Schapiro, the SEC's chairman, has frequently asked Congress to give the SEC the authority to provide monetary awards to people who reveal violations, but to date, the only carrot the SEC can offer is no stick.

Generalmente, la oración principal de cada párrafo se encuentra en la primera oración. A partir de ellas, podemos tomar una idea general de lo que se trata el artículo o texto que estamos leyendo.

En base a la lectura anterior, veamos las palabras principales, las que transmiten contenido, significado:

witnesses securities fraud incentive tattle errant

coworkers accomplices guidelines outline cooperation tools

incentives fraud witnesses come forward still missing cash

¿Cuáles se parecen a nuestro idioma o le resultan familiares?

¿fraud? Sí, es correcto, fraude

¿accomplices? También, cómplices

¿cooperation? – Cooperación

¿incentives? – Así es, incentivos

¡Bien! Ahora, a buscar el sentido general:


Habla de fraude, de cómplices, de cooperación y de incentivos.

Luego buscaremos las palabras que no conocemos (cuidado con los ―falsos amigos‖ – palabras que se parecen a las nuestras pero que no significan lo mismo).

Después haremos una lectura más profunda.

Por lo pronto, podemos deducir que el artículo de The Economist, desarrolla el tema de fraude con valores.

2. Scanning

Además de leer rápido, es necesario mejorar la eficacia lectora. Para ello, hay que leer sabiendo qué buscar y con cuánta profundidad buscarlo y qué descartar.

Como contrapartida, aquella información que es importante aunque difícil de leer debe ser leída con atención, palabra por palabra, para asegurar un máximo de comprensión y de retención del material.

Según la descripción de Wikipedia, ―el scanning es una técnica para buscar términos individuales en un texto. Se fundamenta en la teoría de que se identifican las palabras comparando sus imágenes. El lector se imagina la palabra en el estilo de fuente del texto y después mueve la mirada rápidamente sobre el texto. ―

La técnica de repasar con la vista y examinar rápidamente exige prestar atención a todo, incluidos títulos, subtítulos, características, y efectos visuales. No siempre es sencillo encontrar esa pequeña parte de información que uno está buscando en un párrafo.

Los títulos y subtítulos rompen el texto e identifican el contenido de cada parte. Estas son pistas que nos ayudan a encontrar la información que buscamos.

Esta técnica es similar a cuando uno busca una palabra en un directorio telefónico o en un diccionario. La búsqueda es por palabras clave o por ideas. Como en la mayoría de los casos, uno sabe lo que está buscando, uno está concentrado en encontrar una respuesta en particular.

De manera similar a lo que ocurre con el skimming, cuando hacemos scanning nuestra vista debe tener un movimiento rápido de los ojos hacia abajo buscando palabras y frases específicas.

Comenzamos al principio de la lectura,

Movemos los ojos rápidamente sobre las líneas, sin detenernos demasiado,

Tratamos de encontrar las palabras clave,

Tenemos una noción más cercana en cuanto a qué buscamos.



Witnesses to securities fraud have had little incentive to tattle on

their errant co-workers—or accomplices, as the case may be. Coming

forward, after all, can put one's career, reputation, and wallet at risk. ―In

terms of your legal exposure, there [has been] little or no incentive to

step forward and report a violation [to the Securities and Exchange

Commission]‖ says Russell Ryan, a partner at King & Spalding who spent a

decade in SEC enforcement. But a new set of guidelines within the SEC

aims to change things.

Borrowed from the American Department of Justice, the guidelines

outline “co-operation tools”—formal written agreements with co-

operating companies or individuals that could result in lesser penalties or

no enforcement. Securities lawyers predict that if these tools are fully

used by the SEC, they will lead to a higher number of enforcement

actions but lower penalties.

Yet one of the strongest incentives for fraud witnesses to come forward

is still missing: cash. Although whistle-blowers are protected under

the Sarbanes-Oxley Act, the law has a very high burden of proof, and

its only reward is the right to keep your job. Mary Schapiro, the SEC's

chairman, has frequently asked Congress to give the SEC the authority to

provide monetary awards to people who reveal violations, but to date,

the only carrot the SEC can offer is no stick.

Extracted from:

CFO in focus


Our monthly round-up from CFO.com: the difficulties of industry-switching, new

anti-fraud measures and performance benchmarks, an unusual executive search,

and more


http://www.economist.com/research/articlesBySubject/displaystory.cfm?subjectid

=1290116&story_id=15384601


Hagamos un resumen de lo encontrado hasta aquí:

Empezando por el título: “Truth and No Consequences” – ―La verdad y ninguna consecuencia‖.

Tenemos también, que una serie de palabras que conocemos o que se parecen a palabras en nuestro idioma:

fraud

accomplices

cooperation

incentives

Hicimos el skimming a través de leer la primera oración de cada párrafo:

Witnesses to securities fraud have had little incentive to tattle on their errant co-workers—or accomplices, as the case may be.

Los testigos de fraudes con valores han tenido muy pocos incentivos para denunciar a sus colegas infractores – o a sus cómplices, según sea el caso.

Borrowed from the American Department of Justice, the guidelines outline ―co -operation tools‖

Tomado del Departamento de Justicia de los Estados Unidos, los lineamientos esbozan ―herramientas de cooperación‖.

Yet one of the strongest incentives for fraud witnesses to come forward is sti ll missing: cash.

No obstante, aún falta uno de los más fuertes incentivos para que los testigos de fraude den la cara: el efectivo.

Ya tenemos una idea bastante completa de lo que plantea el texto:

Que existe y es conocido el fraude con valores y cómo quienes saben de él no lo denuncian por falta de ―incentivos‖ o de un premio por hacerlo. También menciona que existen instrumentos para controlar o denunciar.

También nos plantea, como podemos deducirlo del título, que aunque se conozca la verdad, no habrá consecuencias para los infractores.

Una vez ubicada una serie de palabras clave, que nos puede servir para profundizar el concepto que nos hemos formado inicialmente (en la etapa de skimming), empezaremos a leer más en detalle.

Ahora, vamos a ver algunas palabras funcionales que pueden ayudarnos a completar conceptos:

Veamos el texto con las palabras clave de la etapa de scanning en negritas, al que ahora hemos agregado números entre paréntesis:



Witnesses to securities fraud have had little (1) incentive (2) to tattle on their errant (3) co-workers—or (4) accomplices, as the case may be. Coming forward, after all, can put one's career, reputation, and wallet at risk. ―In terms of your (5) legal exposure, there [has been] little or no (6) incentive (7) to step forward and report a violation (8) [to the Securities and Exchange Commission]‖ says Russell Ryan, a partner at King & Spalding who spent a decade in SEC enforcement. But (9) a new set of guidelines within the SEC aims to change things.

Borrowed from the American Department of Justice, the guidelines (10) outline “co-operation tools”—formal written (11) agreements with (12) co-operating companies or (13) individuals that could result in (14) lesser penalties or (15 / 16) no enforcement. Securities (17) lawyers predict that if (18) these tools are fully used by the SEC, they will lead to a higher number (19) of enforcement actions but lower (20) penalties.

Yet (21) one of the strongest (22) incentives for fraud witnesses to come forward is still (23) missing: cash. Although (24) whistle-blowers are protected under the Sarbanes-Oxley Act, the law has a very high burden of proof, and its only (25) reward is the right to keep your job. Mary Schapiro, the SEC's chairman, (26) has frequently (27) asked Congress to give the SEC the authority (28) to provide monetary awards (30) to people who reveal violations, but to date (31), the only carrot the SEC can offer is no stick (32).

Extracted from:

CFO in focus


Our monthly round-up from CFO.com: the difficulties of industry-switching, new anti-fraud measures and performance benchmarks, an unusual executive search, and more


http://www.economist.com/research/articlesBySubject/displaystory.cfm?subjectid=1290116&story_id=15384601

1. ¿Cómo es el incentive? Little – a primera vista, usted dirá que little es pequeño. Tiene razón, pero no en este uso. Aquí quiere decir ―poco (casi nada/casi ningún)‖. Si dijera “a little” querría decir ―un poco (algo)‖.

2. ¿Para qué es ese incentive? To tattle – significa ―chismorrear, chismear, comadrear, cotillear‖. Tomando el contexto del artículo y su seriedad, entendemos que quiere decir hablar por lo bajo sobre las sospechas que los colegas pueden tener sobre otro colega.


3. ¿Cómo son los compañeros de trabajo? Errant – quiere decir ―errante‖ (que anda de un lado a otro). Podemos entender el concepto de: sin mantener su lealtad a nada ni nadie.

4. ¿Por qué habla de accomplices? Según recordamos, esto quiere decir ―cómplices― y, si de cómplices se trata, entendemos que la omisión de hacer notar que un colega comete un fraude convierte a los demás, tal vez, en sus cómplices. O bien, que por hacer lo mismo, callan.

5. ¿A quién afecta la legal exposure? Your – éste es el adjetivo posesivo ―tu‖. Es decir, su (tu) exposición legal.

6. Volvemos sobre la pregunta (1) ¿cómo es el incentive? Little ¿recuerda que dijimos que significa poco, casi nada? Y ahora agrega: or no incentive; es decir, o ―ningún incentivo‖.

7. ¿Para qué es el incentive? To step forward (and report a violation) ―Dar un paso al frente‖ (y denunciar una violación).

8. ¿Ante quién tienen que denunciar la violación? Ante la Securities and Exchange Commission – ―La SEC‖ – ―Comisión de Valores de los Estados Unidos‖.

9. ¿Qué quiere decir ―but‖? But – si revisamos el apunte del módulo 1, veremos que ―but‖ es una conjunción. Significa ―pero‖. Es decir, contrasta dos ideas – es decir, lo anteriormente planteado apunta a situaciones irregulares pero lo que sigue, apunta a un elemento que va a enderezar esas situaciones.

10. ¿Cuál es la función de estos guidelines que han sido tomados de los del Departamento de Justicia de los Estados Unidos? Constituirse en un esquema de ―instrumentos de cooperación‖

11. ¿Qué son los formal written agreements? Son ―acuerdos escritos de manera formal‖. ¿Y cuáles son dichos agreements? Los instrumentos de cooperación.

12. ¿Con quiénes se firman estos acuerdos? Con las co-operating companies – ―empresas que cooperan con la SEC bajo estos acuerdos‖.

13. ¿O con quiénes también se firman estos acuerdos? or individuals – ―o individuos‖.

14. ¿Qué significa that could result in? ―Que puede dar como resultado‖.

15. ¿Y lesser penalties? Lesser es un adjetivo que quiere decir ―menor‖. ¿Penalties? Sí, ―penalización, castigo, sanciones‖.

16. No enforcement - No, en inglés, acompañando a un sustantivo, quiere decir ―ningún / ninguna‖. Enforcement equivale al concepto de ―aplicación de medidas de cumplimiento obligatorio‖. Conlleva una clara alusión a la fuerza para hacer cumplir la ley, una reglamentación, etc.

17. ¿Qué son los Securities? ―Valores‖. Y ¿los securities lawyers? Son los ―abogados especializados en valores, bonos, títulos, etc‖.


18. Y estos abogados predicen que if … - If es una conjunción que introduce una oración de condicionalidad. If these tools are used, … ―Si se aplican estos instrumentos…‖.

19. they will lead to a higher number of … actions – ―éstos llevarán a una mayor cantidad de acciones‖. Higher es un adjetivo ―high‖ en su forma comparativa (―-er‖).

20. lower penalties – ―Penalizaciones o sanciones menores‖. Lower es el comparativo del adjetivo low.

21. Yet es una conjunción que significa ―sin embargo‖.

22. One of the strongest es el superlativo (the … est) del adjetivo ―strong‖.

23. Still es un adverbio que significa ―todavía / aún‖. También puede traducirse como alguna forma del verbo ―seguir‖. … is still missing – ―siguen faltando‖.

24. Although es una conjunción y significa ―aunque‖. (Although whistle-blowers are protected under the Sarbanes-Oxley Act…) ―Aunque los denunciantes se encuentran protegidos bajo la Ley Sarbanes-Oxley…‖.

25. Only quiere decir ―único/a‖.

26. The SEC’s. En inglés, el posesivo se forma con un apóstrofe („) y una s.

27. Frequently es un adverbio de frecuencia : ―frecuentemente‖.

28. Asked the congress to give ¿dar a quién? – (the SEC) ―a la SEC‖

29. To give the SEC ¿dar qué? – (the authority) ―la autoridad‖.

30. to provide monetary awards ¿brindar a quién? – (to people who reveal violations) ―a la gente que revela las violaciones / infracciones‖.

31. but to date. Recuerde que but quiere decir ―pero‖. To date significa ―a la fecha / al día de hoy‖.

32. the only carrot the SEC can offer is no stick – existen muchas expresiones con carrot y con stick. Todas se relacionan con la motivación y con premios (carrot) y castigos (stick). En este caso, lo que resume es que la SEC lo único que ofrece son premios y no existen castigos que aplicar.

Bien, ya hemos usado todos los procesos necesarios para poder entender una lectura. Ahora vamos a resumir los conceptos.

Habíamos dicho que el artículo trata sobre el fraude con valores y, por su título, pudimos darnos cuenta que versa sobre la cantidad de infracciones que existen. Que no hay castigos pese a la existencia de numerosos instrumentos formales para regular este tipo de operaciones.

Luego de leer más a fondo y de reconocer las palabras funcionales (que son las que dan cohesión y articulación a los textos) descubrimos que mucha gente que trabaja con valores comete serios delitos o es testigo de tales delitos. El problema es que estos delitos no se denuncian y, según lo plantea el autor, es por una parte, debido a que no existe un sistema de


compensación para los denunciantes pese a estar protegidos por una ley para la protección de testigos. Por la otra, porque la SEC no tiene instaurado un sistema de castigos que desaliente dichas prácticas.

Módulo 2

Unidad 2

Lecturascomplementarias




Lecturas A continuación encontrará una serie de lecturas que puede ir aprovechando y en las cuales puede ir practicando las técnicas aprendidas.

Lectura nº 1

Tax Changes for Individuals - Individuals IRS de los Estados Unidos de Norteamérica [http://www.irs.gov/formspubs/content/0,,id=178012,00.html]

Alternative Minimum Tax (AMT)

2009 Changes

The following changes to the AMT went into effect for 2009. For more

information, see Form 6251, Alternative Minimum Tax--Individuals, and its

instructions.

AMT exemption amount increased. The AMT exemption amount has

increased to $46,700 ($70,950 if married filing jointly or qualifying

widow(er); $35,475 if married filing separately).

AMT exemption amount for a child increased. The AMT exemption

amount for a child whose unearned income is taxed at the parent's tax rate

has increased to $6,700.

Qualified motor vehicle tax allowed against AMT. If you claim a

regular tax deduction for any state or local sales or excise tax on the

purchase of a new motor vehicle, that tax is also allowed as a deduction for

the AMT.

Tax-exempt interest on specified private activity bonds issued in

2009 or 2010 exempt from AMT. Tax-exempt interest on specified

private activity bonds issued in 2009 or 2010 is not an item of tax

preference and therefore is not subject to the AMT. A refunding bond is

treated as issued on the date of the issuance of the refunded bond (or, in the

case of a series of refundings, the original bond). However, tax-exempt

interest on a specified private activity bond issued in 2009 or 2010 to

currently refund a private activity bond issued after 2003 and before 2009

is not an item of tax preference.

Alternative tax net operating loss deduction (ATNOLD). The 90%

limit on the ATNOLD does not apply to the portion of an ATNOLD

attributable to any 2008 or 2009 loss you elected to carry back more than 2

years under section 172(b)(1)(H) of the Internal Revenue Code.


Page Last Reviewed or Updated: December 29, 2009

Lectura nº 2

Individuals - Child-related Tax Changes - Child's Investment Income – IRS de los EstadosUnidos de Norteamérica

2008

Increase in age of children whose investment income is taxed at

parent's rate. The rules regarding the age of a child whose investment

income may be taxed at the parent's tax rate have changed for 2008. These

rules continue to apply to a child under age 18 at the end of the year but,

beginning in 2008, will also apply in certain cases to a child who either:

• Was age 18 at the end of 2008 and did not have earned income that was more than half of the child's support, or

• Was a full-time student over age 18 and under age 24 at the end of 2008 and did not have earned income that was more than half of the child's support.

A student is a child who during any part of 5 calendar months of the year

was enrolled as a full-time student at a school, or took a full-time, on-farm

training course given by a school or a state, county, or local government

agency. A school includes a technical, trade, or mechanical school. It does

not include an on-the-job training course, correspondence school, or school

offering courses only through the Internet.

Form 8615 * is used to figure the child's tax. These rules also apply to

parents who elect on Form 8814 * to report their child's income on the

parents' return.

Increase in investment income amount. The amount of taxable

investment income these children can have without it being subject to tax at

the parent's rate has increased to $1,800 for 2008.

2009

The amount of taxable investment income a child can have without it being

subject to tax at the parent's rate has increased to $1,900 for 2009.

Page Last Reviewed or Updated: November 26, 2009.


Lectura nº 3

Individuals - Earned Income for Additional Child Tax Credit – IRS de los EstadosUnidos de Norteamérica

2009

For 2009, the amount your earned income must exceed to claim the

additional child tax credit is reduced to $3,000.

2010

For 2010, the amount your earned income must exceed to claim the

additional child tax credit is $3,000.

Page Last Reviewed or Updated: November 26, 2009

Lectura nº 4

Individuals - Decreased Estimated Tax Payments for Qualified Individuals With Small Businesses – IRS de los EstadosUnidos de Norteamérica

For 2009, qualified individuals with small businesses may be eligible to

make smaller estimated tax payments. If you qualify, your required annual

payment for 2009 is the smaller of 90% of the tax shown on your 2008 tax

return or 90% of the tax shown on your 2009 tax return. You must check

box F in Part II on Form 2210 or box C on Form 2210-F *to certify that

you qualify.

You are a qualified individual if:

• More than 50% of your gross income was from a business that had an average of fewer than 500 employees in 2008, and

• Your adjusted gross income in 2008 was less than $500,000 ($250,000 if you are filing married filing separately for 2009).

Page Last Reviewed or Updated: July 09, 2009


Lectura nº 5

Individuals - Earned Income Credit – IRS de los Estados Unidos de Norteamérica

2009 Changes

The following paragraphs explain the changes to the credit for 2009.

Amount of credit increased. The maximum amount of the credit has

increased. The most you can get for 2009 is:

• $3,043 if you have one qualifying child,

• $5,028 if you have two qualifying children,

• $5,657 if you have three or more qualifying children, or

• $457 if you do not have a qualifying child.

Earned income amount increased. The maximum amount of income you

can earn and still get the credit has increased for 2009. You may be able to

take the credit if:

• You have three or more qualifying children and you earn less than $43,279 ($48,279 if married filing jointly)

• You have two qualifying children and you earn less than $40,295 ($45,295 if married filing jointly),

• You have one qualifying child and you earn less than $35,463 ($40,463 if married filing jointly), or

• You do not have a qualifying child and you earn less than $13,440 ($18,440 if married filing jointly).

The maximum amount of adjusted gross income (AGI) you can have and

still get the credit also has increased. You may be able to take the credit if

your AGI is less than the amount in the above list that applies to you.

Investment income amount increased.The maximum amount of investment

income you can have and still get the credit has increased to $3,100 for

2009.

Advance payment of the credit. If you get advance payments of the credit

from your employer with your pay, the total advance payments you get

during 2009 can be as much as $1,826.

2010 Changes

The following paragraphs explain the changes to the credit for 2009. For

details, see Publication 596, Earned Income Credit (EIC).


Amount of credit increased. The maximum amount of the credit has

increased. The most you can get for 2010 is:

• $3,050 if you have one qualifying child,

• $5,036 if you have two qualifying children,

• $5,666 if you have three or more qualifying children, or

• $457 if you do not have a qualifying child.

Earned income amount increased. The maximum amount of income you

can earn and still get the credit has increased for 2010. You may be able to

take the credit if:

• You have three or more qualifying children and you earn less than $43,352 ($48,362 if married filing jointly),

• You have two qualifying children and you earn less than $40,363 ($45,373 is married filing jointly),

• You have one qualifying child and you earn less then $35,535 ($40,545 if married filing jointly), or

• You do not have a qualifying child and you earn less then $13,460 ($18,470 if married filing jointly).

Investment income amount. The maximum amount of investment income

you can have and still get the credit is still $3,100 for 2010.

Advance payment of the credit. If you get the advance payments of the

credit from your employer with your pay, the total advance payments you

get during 2010 can be as much as $1,830.

Page Last Reviewed or Updated: December 04, 2009

Lectura nº 6

Individuals - Economic Recovery Payment – IRS de los Estados Unidos de Norteamérica

Any economic recovery payment you receive during 2009 is not taxable.

These $250 payments are being made to most people who:

• Receive social security benefits, supplemental security income (SSI), railroad retirement benefits, or veterans disability compensation or pension benefits, and

• Live in a U.S. state, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, Guam, the U.S. Virgin Islands, American Samoa, or the Northern Mariana Islands. If you are married and you and your spouse both meet these requirements,

each of you may get a $250 payment.


If you are entitled to a payment, you will get it automatically. You do not

need to apply for it.

Making Work Pay and Government Retiree Credits

Two new credits you may be able to take for 2009 are the:

• Making work pay credit, and

• Government retiree credit.

Making work pay credit. You may be able to take this credit if you have

earned income from work. Even if your federal income tax withholding is

reduced during 2009 because of the credit, you must claim the credit on

your return to benefit from it.

You cannot take the credit if:

• Your modified AGI is $95,000 ($190,000 if married filing jointly) or more,

• You are a nonresident alien, or • You can be claimed as a dependent on someone else's return. The credit is 6.2% of your earned income but cannot be more than $400

($800 if married filing jointly). The credit will be reduced if:

• You receive a $250 economic recovery payment (described earlier) during 2009,

• Your modified AGI is more than $75,000 ($150,000 if married filing jointly), or

• You take the government retiree credit discussed next.

Government retiree credit. You can take this credit if you receive a pension

or annuity payment in 2009 for service performed for the U.S. Government

or any U.S. state or local government (or any instrumentality of one or more

of these) and the service was not covered by social security. The credit is

$250 ($500 if married filing jointly and both you and your spouse receive a

qualifying pension or annuity). However, you cannot take the credit if you

receive a $250 economic recovery payment during 2009. If you file a joint

return, both you and your spouse receive a qualifying pension or annuity,

and both of you receive an economic recovery payment, no government

retiree credit is allowed; if only one of you receives an economic recovery

payment, the credit is $250.

Social security number. To take either credit, you must include your social

security number (if filing a joint return, the number of either you or your

spouse) on your return. A social security number does not include an

identification number issued by the IRS.


Schedule M. Generally, you will use new Schedule M (Form 1040A or 1040)

to figure both the making work pay credit and the government retiree

credit. Both credits are refundable, which means they are treated like

payments you made and may give you a refund even if you had no tax

withheld from your pay or your pension. If you are filing Form 1040EZ, you

can take the making work pay credit on that form and do not have to file

Schedule M.

More information. If you want to figure now the amount you can expect

from these credits, see Worksheet 2-9 in Publication 505, Tax

Withholding and Estimated Tax.

Page Last Reviewed or Updated: May 01, 2009

Lectura nº 7

2009 Tax Checklist

[http://articles.moneycentral.msn.com/Taxes/taxchecklist.aspx]

2009 Tax Checklist

What you really need to do your taxes

This checklist can be your personal guide to compiling and organizing your tax documents. It can save you time and remind you which tax documents you've gathered throughout the year.

How many times have you asked yourself, "Have I got EVERYTHING to do

my taxes?" Probably too many times.

While the tax laws may change from year to year, the basic information you

need to do your return or take to your tax preparer doesn't change that

much from year to year.

What may change is what you can DO with the information.

You will need W-2 forms, 1098 forms to document the interest you pay on

your mortgage, receipts for your charitable donations and documentation

on any property taxes you pay.


If you have a lot of investments, you'll want trade information so you or

your tax preparer can calculate taxes due on capital gains and dividends.

Here's a reference of all the data you might need and who should have it or

keep track of it. And start organizing the collection and organizing of all this

material.

Taxpayer's checklist for tax year 2009

Information you need Where to get the data

PERSONAL DATA

Social Security numbers

(including spouse and children)

These are required to qualify for

exemptions.

Your child-care provider's tax ID

or Social Security number

This is critical to qualify for child care

credits.

Form 8332, copies of your divorce

decree, or other documents

proving your right to claim a child

living with your ex-spouse.

Divorce documents are on file in the

court where you filed. Your lawyer

should have them as well. Form 8332

is available on the IRS Web site.

EMPLOYMENT & INCOME

DATA

W-2 forms for this year These come from your employer.

Partnership and trust income Data for these should come from an

accountant or financial institution.

Pensions and annuities Data should come from the financial

institution, insurance company selling

the annuity or pension fund.

Social Security Railroad

Retirement Benefits

You will need Form RRB 1099 or Form

RRB 1042S for nonresident alien

recipients of Railroad Retirement

benefits.

Alimony received Tax information should come from

your ex-spouse or his representative.

Your former spouse will want your

Social Security number to be able to

deduct any alimony payments.

Jury duty pay Data should come from the court clerk.

Gambling and lottery winnings This data should come from the casino

or lottery authority. Use Form W-2G.


Prizes and awards Data should come from the award

givers. Use Form 1099-MISC.

Scholarships and fellowships Data should come from the

administrators of these programs. Use

Form 1099-MISC.

State and local income-tax

refunds

Data should come from the taxing

authorities.

HOMEOWNER/RENTER DATA

Residential address(es) for this year This is your responsibility.

Mortgage interest Your lender will send you this data

on Form 1098.

Sale of your home or other real

estate

Your lender or closing agent should

send you Form1099-S.

Second-mortgage interest paid Your lender will send you this data

on Form 1098.

Real-estate taxes paid Your county clerk or lender should

send you this data.

Rent paid during tax year You need to generate this data.

Moving expenses If your expenses are reimbursed by

an employer, the employer will

furnish you with data on the moving

costs they paid for.

First-time homebuyer credit You will need to file Form 5405 to

claim the credit. You will need data

from your sale closing documents.

FINANCIAL ASSETS

Interest-income statements Financial institutions will provide

this data on Form 1099-INT & Form

1099-OID.

Dividend-income statements This will come on Form 1099-DIV

from the company paying the

dividends.

Proceeds from broker transactions Your brokers should furnish this


data on Form 1099-B.

Tax refunds and unemployment

compensation

The issuing agencies should send

this information on Form 1099G.

FINANCIAL LIABILITIES

Auto loans and leases, including

account numbers and car value, if

the vehicle is used for business

You can get this data from the lender

or leasing company.

Student loan interest paid The lender should furnish this data

on Form 1098-E.

Early withdrawal penalties on CDs

and other time deposits

Financial institutions should provide

this data.

AUTOMOBILES

Personal-property tax information This data should come from the state

or local taxing authority.

Cash for Clunkers reporting All forms should have been filed by

the dealer that sold the vehicle. The

credit doesn't need to be reported on

your federal return. Your state may

have some requirements, however.

DEDUCTIBLE EXPENSES

Gifts to charity This data should come from the

charity. Since 2007, you have new

responsibilities. You will need a bank

record (such as a canceled check, a

bank copy of a canceled check, or a

bank statement containing the name

of the charity, the date, and the

amount) or a written communication

from the charity. The written

communication must include the

name of the charity, date of the

contribution and the amount of the

contribution.

Unreimbursed expenses for

volunteer work

You will need to keep your own

records for this. Remember, you can

deduct any driving expenses for


volunteer or charitable work at the

rate of 14 cents a mile.

Unreimbursed expenses related to

your job

You will need to maintain this data.

Travel expenses, entertainment,

uniforms, union dues, subscriptions

and investment expenses

Your broker will furnish some data.

Travel, phone and other related

expenses are your responsibility to

track.

Job-hunting expenses You will need to keep and maintain

this data.

Education expenses You will need to keep this data. But if

you qualify for Hope or Lifetime

Learning credits or other college

deductions, the college involved will

send you the data on the qualifying

expenses you've paid. If you plan to

claim education deductions, you will

need Form 1098-T from the

institution. If you expect to deduct

interest on student loans, get Form

1098-E from the lender.

Child-care expenses You will need to keep this data.

Medical savings accounts The institution handling the account

will be able to generate any data.

Adoption expenses You will need to track this data and

be able to document these expenses.

Alimony paid You or the authority disbursing

funds will need to keep this data. To

deduct this expense, you will need

the recipient's Social Security

number.

Sales-tax expenses If you expect to claim a sales tax

deduction on your 2009 tax return,

you will need receipts for expenses.

Or you can fill out a worksheet that

the IRS provides to help estimate

sales tax expenses.

SELF-EMPLOYMENT DATA

K-1s on all partnerships The partnership management should


generate this data.

Receipts or documentation for

business-related expenses

This is data you should keep and

track.

Farm income You or an accountant should tack

this information. You will need to

prepare Schedule F.

DEDUCTION DOCUMENTS

Federal, state and local estimated

taxes paid for current year,

including estimated tax vouchers,

cancelled checks & other payment

records

You must keep copies of this data

and track it.

IRA, Keogh & other retirement plan

contributions

You can get this information from

your financial institutions.

Medical expenses You must track this data.

CASUALTY OR THEFT LOSSES

Other miscellaneous deductions

You will need to file Form 4684.

Updated Dec. 18, 2009

Lectura nº 8

Employment Legislation in India

[http://www.iptu.co.uk/content/india_employment_law.asp]

Last update: July 2008

Employment Law

• Employment Regulations • Work Permits

• The Employment Market

• Engagement and Dismissal • Employees' Rights and Remuneration • Working Hours

• Pensions • Termination of Employment


• Wages and Benefits

• Employment of Foreigners • Occupational Health and Safety

Employment Regulations

There are various Acts, which regulate labour and employment in India.

Some of the Acts are:

• Apprentices Act, 1961 • Beedi Workers Welfare Fund Act, 1976

• Bonded Labour System (Abolition) Act, 1976 • Building and Other Construction Workers (Regulation of Employment Service) Act, 1996

• Child Labour (Prohibition & Regulation) Act, 1986 • Children (Pledging of Labour) Act, 1933 • Maternity Benefit Act, 1961

• Minimum Wages Act, 1948

• National Commission for SafaiKaramcharis Act, 1993 • Payment of Bonus Act, 1965 • Payment of Gratuity Act, 1972 • Payment of Wages Act, 1936

• Cine-Workers and Cinema Theatre Workers (Regulation of Employment) Act, 1981

• Cine-workers Welfare Fund Act, 1981

• Contract Labour (Regulation & Abolition) Act, 1970 • Dangerous Machines (Regulation) Act, 1983

• Dock Workers (Regulation of Employment) Act, 1948

• Dock Workers (Safety, Health and Welfare) Act, 1986

• Employees Provident Fund & Miscellaneous Provisions Act, 1952

• Employees' State Insurance Act, 1948 • Employers' Liability Act, 1938 • Equal Remuneration Act, 1976 • Factories Act, 1948 • Industrial Disputes Act, 1947 • Industrial Employment (Standing Orders) Act, 1946 • Inter-State Migrant Workmen (Regulation of Employment and Condition of Service) Act, 1979

• Labour Laws (Exemption from Furnishing Returns & Maintaining Registers by Certain Est.s) Act, 1988

• Pensions Act, 1871 • Sales Promotion Employees (Conditions of Service) Act, 1976 • Seamen's Provident Fund Act, 1966 • Trade Union Act, 1926 • Weekly Holidays Act, 1948

• Workmen's Compensation Act, 1923 Source: Guide "Doing Business in India"

Under the Constitution of India, labour is a subject in the Concurrent List

where both the Central & State Governments are competent to enact

legislation subject to certain matters being reserved for the Centre.


Different labour laws have different eligibility criteria for establishments as

well as to the workmen. The main laws relating to labour protection,

welfare and rights are enumerated below:

Work Permits

People coming from United Kingdom need to apply for a Visa to go to India,

both for tourism and for business reasons. Visiting the High Commission of

India’s web site, you will find all the relevant information you need:

The Employment Market

India has a large pool of all types of labour as well as an adequate supply of

office staff for both management, supervisory and clerical posts. Skilled

manpower and professional managers are available at a comparatively

moderate cost. Except for top managerial positions, most of the other

technically qualified staff is also available at inexpensive rates. There is an

abundant supply of semiskilled and unskilled labour, with labour rates

being just a fraction of those prevailing in developed countries. India is

particularly rich in IT professionals. Both Indian and multinational

recruitment agencies exist in the market.

Source: UK Trade & Investment

Graduate outlook

India is a huge country with many opportunities. Structurally, it is highly

complex, with vast numbers of small businesses that traditionally are non-

graduate recruiters. Large multi-nationals increasingly operate in India and

many large Indian businesses compete on the global stage, so formal

graduate recruitment is taking place on Indian university campuses as well

as in the job market generally. There is a tradition of Western ex-pat

managers but most international companies now aim to recruit indigenous

staff.

Companies such as IBM, Wipro and Infosys recruit 15,000-20,000 new

graduates each year. Recruitment problems are often exacerbated by high

staff turnover, particularly in back office support businesses where annual

staff turnover exceeds 60%.

Generally speaking, the best advice for British nationals is to train in the UK

first with a company that operates in India, and then move with the

company. This also helps with visa issues.

Unemployment

It is difficult to obtain accurate unemployment figures for India. The World

Factbook suggests 7.8% for 2006 but this figure does not reflect the reality

that a fifth of the population live in poverty and many people are

chronically under employed. More than 90% of the labourforce are

employed in the ‘unorganised sector’, i.e. they work without social security

and other benefits.


Working practices and customs

The Indian work culture is immensely diverse. In indigenous sectors and

companies, the work ethic is influenced by the importance given to family

life and religious festivals. Public services can be bureaucratic, inefficient

and corrupt, so there is a great need to attract private capital to the

infrastructure.

Business practices vary between regions. Expatriates are often faced with a

very different way of doing business and may require patience, flexibility

and adaptability.

Companies have realised the importance of investing in training their

workforce to meet new demands, and training is driving up standards of

professionalism. The Indian education and training sector cannot meet the

growing demand for training and there is potential for British professional

training organisations to step in and meet this demand.

Average salaries in India in 2006 were around £4,000pa but graduates

from top Indian universities can start on significantly more than this.

Salaries are increasing rapidly and much of the high turnover in Indian

businesses is due to competitors offering higher salaries. Salaries in major

cities are usually higher and salaries in rural districts much lower.

There are three national public holidays in India and over 30 religious days

that may be kept as holidays in particular regions. It is quite common for

Indians to work on Saturdays.

Language requirements

Hindi is the official union language and is spoken by approximately 45% of

the population. There are 18 official regional languages, another 24 that are

relatively major, 720 dialects and 23 tribal languages. English is used for

much official communication. Visitors can usually get by with English,

especially in towns and cities.

The medium of instruction is English in most universities, especially for

scientific, technical and professional education. A few universities and

colleges have switched to Hindi and regional languages but, even there,

English is used for most higher degrees.

Source: Prospects - the UK official graduate careers website

Engagement and Dismissal

India has the world’s third-largest pool of scientific and technical

personnel, which serves as an important attraction for foreign investors.

Most managerial and technical people, and many skilled workers, speak

English, and many have studied or worked abroad. Unemployment and

underemployment are high, providing an abundant supply of potential

employees. Although there is a large pool of underemployed educated

personnel, as in much of the developing world, illiteracy acts as a brake on


labor productivity in the workforce as a whole. The current 148 industrial

policy provides for hiring of foreign technicians without prior government

approval.

The RBI (Reserve Bank of India) has raised the remittable per-diem rate

from USD 500 to USD 1000, with an annual ceiling of USD 200,000 for

services provided by foreign technicians payable to a foreign firm.

Technical personnel can remit up to 75 percent of their monthly net income

through authorized exchange dealers. Total duration of employment of a

technician is limited to 12 months at a time. Employment in excess of 12

months requires clearance by the Ministry of Home Affairs.

India is a member of the International Labor Organization (ILO) and

adheres to 37 ILO conventions protecting worker rights. Industrial relations

are governed by the Industrial and Disputes Act of 1947. The Act curbs

unfair labor practices by employers, workers or trade unions through

imposition of fines and imprisonment. Workers may form or join unions of

their choice. Nevertheless, although unionized workers affiliated with

national federations number more than seven million, their unions

represent less than one fourth of the workers in the so called modern sector

(subject to the Factories Act of 1948), primarily in state-owned concerns,

and less than two percent of the total work force. Where workers are

unionized, wage increases are negotiated between unions and management.

Most unions are linked to political parties and their politicization has, in the

past, created problems for domestic and foreign employers. Labor militancy

has declined in recent years, however, even among the formerly strident

Communist-Marxist unions of West Bengal. Workdays lost to strikes and

lock-outs have declined every year since 1991. Worker rights are broadly

protected under Indian law.

The Industrial Disputes Act established freedom of association and

collective bargaining rights. The Factories Act regulates working conditions

in mechanized factories employing more than 10 employees or non-

mechanized factories employing more than twenty, prescribing standards

for working conditions, working hours, handling and storage of materials,

etc. Other laws regulate employment of women and children and prohibit

bonded labor.

Enforcement of these laws has been imperfect, however, and working

conditions for workers not subject to the Factories Act are often quite poor.

Payment of wages is governed by the Payment of Wages Act, 1936 and

Minimum Wages Act, 1948. Industrial wages range from about USD 3 per

day for unskilled workers, to over USD 150 per month for skilled 149

production workers. Retrenchment, closure and layoffs are governed by the

Industrial Disputes Act, which requires prior government permission to

carry out layoffs or closure of businesses employing 100 or more workers.

In practice, permission is not easily obtained. However, private firmshave

successfully downsized using voluntary retirement schemes.


Source:” FY 2000 Country Commercial Guide: India”, U.S. Department of

State.

Employees' Rights and Remuneration

India's labour laws are overlapping, potentially inconsistent and

cumbersome, with more than 45 pieces of relevant legislation. Employers

face particular difficulties in terminating employment and closing industrial

establishments.

The Workmen's Compensation Act, 1923 provides for compensation to

workers for industrial accidents and occupational diseases resulting in

disability and death. The minimum compensation for death is Rs80,000

and for total disability Rs90,000. The maximum compensation for death is

Rs456,000 and for total disability is Rs548,000.

The Payment of Wages Act, 1936, and the Minimum Wages Act, 1948 call

for regular and timely payment of wages, industry wage boards to

recommend the minimum wage and fix the wage-rate structure for each

industry.

The Industrial Disputes Act, 1947 covers layoffs, retrenchment

compensation, labour-management disputes and unfair labour practices.

The Act also addresses reinstatement of workers by a labour court or

tribunal order that the employer can appeal to a higher court. A reinstated

worker is entitled to 100% of wages while the decision of the higher court is

pending.

The Act requires industrial establishments with 100 or more workers to

draw up standing orders that specify working conditions (hours, shifts,

holidays, vacation, sick pay, termination rules and grievance procedures).

These orders must meet minimum state standards, and they may be

changed only with the consent of the workers or the unions and only to

augment benefits. The code of discipline in industry adopted by the

Standing Labour Committee (a type of national 20 India International Tax

and Business Guide conference held by the Ministry of Labour) defines the

rights and responsibilities of employees and workers, and it provides for a

grievance procedure and the settlement of disputes by voluntary

arbitration.

The Industrial Employment (Standing Orders) Act, 1959 requires

employers in industrial establishments to define conditions of employment.

The Maternity Benefit Act, 1961 covers mandatory maternity benefits.

The Payment of Gratuity Act, 1972 requires employers to pay a gratuity to

workers earning less than a certain limit upon termination of service.


The Equal Remuneration Act, 1976 prohibits job and wage discrimination

based on sex, except for prohibiting or restricting the employment of

women in certain categories of work.

The Essential Service Maintenance Act, 1981 empowers the government to

prohibit strikes in any industry that is declared essential.

The Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act, 1986 prohibits child

labour in hazardous occupations and regulates it in non-hazardous

occupations.

The Trade Unions Act, 1926 provides for registration of trade unions. By

way of amendment in 2001, it reduced the multiplicity of trade unions.

The Indian government continues to oppose the linking of international

trade with labour standards, but it is a signatory to 39 International

LabourOrganisation (ILO) conventions.

Useful information about employment law and many other subjects, to

better understand Indian investment climate, can be found online at: Doing

business in India

Working Hours

The Factories Act 1948 established a 48-hour working week; in practice,

however, office employees normally work a five-day week of 37-38 hours.

Factory workers have on average a six-day week of 43-48 hours. The

Factories Act was amended in 2005 to allow women to work on night shifts

(10 pm-6 am), as long as employees provide adequate safeguards for them.

In most places, any work beyond nine hours per day (up to ten hours,

including rest intervals) is counted as overtime, usually paid at double the

normal wage. Night and Sunday work do not command a premium unless

they result in overtime. Holiday work generally requires double pay,

although workers may opt for a substitute paid holiday. Overtime for blue-

collar staff is limited to four hours at a stretch.

Pensions

The Employees Provident Fund (EPF) applies to most establishments that

employ at least 20 workers. Contributions are compulsory for employees

earning up to Rs6,500 per month and voluntary for those who earn more

than this amount. Employers and employees each contribute 12% (10% for

certain industries) of the basic wage and dearness allowance of the

employee. From the employer's contribution, 8.33% of the wage is taken

out and diverted to the Pension Fund. For the purpose of the contribution

to the Pension Fund, if the pay of any employee exceeds Rs6,500 per

month, the contribution payable by the employer will be limited to the

amount payable on the first Rs6,500 only. The employee's contribution

does not go to the Pension Fund. Four main types of pension are offered: a

monthly pension upon superannuation or disability; a monthly widows'


pension for death while in service; a monthly children's pension; and a

monthly orphan's pension. The Employees Provident Fund Act now applies

to 180 industries and classes of establishment.

Termination of Employment

Existing regulations require companies to obtain government permission to

close an operation or lay off workers in firms with 100 or more employees

(service-industry companies, such as IT firms, are exempt). The Industrial

Disputes Act, 1947 requires employers wishing to close an establishment to

apply for permission at least 60 days before the intended closing date. If the

government does not convey its decision within 60 days of the application,

approval is deemed granted. A company can appeal against a rejection to

the Industrial Tribunal.

Workers in an establishment that is closed illegally (that is, without

approval) remain entitled to full pay and benefits. Dismissal for misconduct

is allowed without notice under the Industrial Employment (Standing

Orders) Act, 1959. The Payment of Gratuity Act 1972 entitles workers to a

gratuity of up to Rs350,000 after five years of continuous service.

It is usually difficult for large companies to dismiss staff. Retrenchments

and layoffs require full explanation to and prior approval from the state

government. (Retrenchment under an agreement specifying a termination

date requires no prior notice.) The last-in, first-out principle is usually

followed.

Compelled by mounting competition to cut wage costs or consider moving

out of high-wage locations such as Mumbai (Bombay), several companies

have resorted to voluntary retirement schemes (VRSs) or redeployment.

Beneficiaries under an approved VRS of a private-sector company are

exempt from tax on monetary benefits of up to Rs500,000.

Wages and Benefits

Wages and fringe benefits vary considerably by industry, company size and

region. Wages have two components: the basic salary and an allowance

("dearness allowance") linked to the cost-of-living index. The allowance,

paid as part of the monthly salary, may be at a flat rate or on a scale

graduated by income group; it often adds 60% or more to base pay. A

mandatory bonus supplements wages.

Companies use both time and piece rates. The former is more common in

organised-factory industries, such as engineering, chemicals, cement, paper

and glass. Rates may be per hour, day, week or month. Piece rates, which

the government has encouraged in order to boost productivity, are usually

paid monthly, although casual workers are paid on a daily basis. Some

industries (especially metal extracting, metal rolling, electrical machinery

and glass) pay production premiums.


In the organised sector, wages are often set by settlements reached between

trade unions and management.

The central government sets a general floor minimum wage and sets other,

higher minimum wages for different industries. The state governments set

different minimum wages for other industries, but these are not bound by

the central government's floor wage.

Fringe benefits normally add 40-50% to base pay. By law, women are

entitled to remuneration equal to that of men for performing equivalent

work. Mandatory fringe benefits include the following:

Bonus for workers earning Rs3,500 or less per month (minimum of 8.33%

and maximum of 20% of annual wages in factories employing ten or more).

The minimum bonus payable is Rs2,500 and the maximum bonus actually

payable is Rs6,000.

Dearness allowance (based on cost-of-living index) for all levels below

management in firms employing 50 or more workers.

Provident fund at 10% of wages (12% for a large number of industries and

business establishments) for all workers earning Rs6,500 or less per month.

One day of paid vacation for every 20 days worked (granted to every worker

who has worked in a factory for a period of 240 days or more).

Health insurance (employer contributes 4.75% of total wage bill) for those

who earn Rs6,500 or less per month.

Severance pay of 15 days of average salary for each complete year of

continuous service.

Sick leave of seven days annually at full pay; half pay for those covered

under the Employees' State Insurance Act.

Casual leave of seven to ten days for unforeseen circumstances.

Maternity leave of 12 weeks at full pay.

Employment of Foreigners

Expatriate employment in manufacturing industries is generally limited to

technical and specialised personnel. Many foreign affiliates have a few

expatriates in India. The usual configuration is one or two at the head office

(often in the finance function or as chief executive) and two or three

technical people.

No specific permission of the Government of India or the RBI is required

for a foreign national to take up employment in India. Foreign nationals do

have to register with the concerned District Foreigners' Registration

Officer/Foreigners' Regional Registration Officer, within 14 days of their

arrival in India, if they hold a visa for a period of more than 180 days. This

registration is required irrespective of whether or not they intend to stay in


India for less or more than 180 days-that is, the deciding factor is the period

for which the visa has been granted and not the actual length of stay.

Foreigners' Regional Registration Offices are located in Mumbai, New Delhi

(the capital) and Kolkata (Calcutta); there are also state-level offices in

individual states.

Foreign nationals (except citizens of the countries of Nepal and Bhutan)

require a valid passport or travel document and a valid visa to enter India.

Such a visa can be obtained from the Indian Embassy/Consulate located in

the home country of the foreign national.

It normally takes about three months to obtain an immigration visa, and

foreign companies report no problems in acquiring visas for their technical

personnel. The visa is generally given for the same period as the

employment contract. Once it is obtained, a stay permit is granted; this

must be endorsed annually by the state government where the foreign

national resides.

Indian embassies and consulates abroad issue visas. Business visas are

granted on application and may be issued for up to five years, with a

multiple-entry provision. Visas may be extended or renewed within India. A

foreigner who arrives in India without a visa may be granted a temporary

visa at the airport, but this usually leads to future difficulties and should be

avoided.

Expatriates are paid salaries several times those of their Indian

counterparts. Domestic private-sector salaries are rising quickly, although

they vary widely among industries. Foreign nationals employed in India for

up to three years, but not permanently resident in the country, may remit

up to 100% of their net salary out of India.

Under India's double-taxation agreements, salaries that a foreign company

(and not its permanent establishment in India) pays for services rendered

in India are taxable in India if the employee works for more than 182 days

during the tax year.

Source: Deloitte - International Tax and Business Guide

Occupational Health and Safety

Health and safety of the employees are important aspects in an

organization's smooth and effective functioning. Good health and safety

environment ensures an accident-free industrial set up. Maintenance of

occupational safety and health is very closely related to productivity and

good employer-employee relationship. Awareness of Occupational Health

and Safety (OH&S) has improved in India considerably. Achieving high

OH&S performance has become one of the key aspects of business

activities.

Management of Occupational Health and Safety demands adoption of a

structured approach for the identification of hazards, their evaluation and


control of risks in the organization. Bureau of Indian Standards has

formulated an Indian Standard on OH&S management systems. It is called

as the IS 18001:2000 Occupational Health and Safety Management

Systems. This standard prescribes requirements for an OH&S Management

Systems to enable an organization to formulate a policy and objectives,

taking into account legislative requirements and information about

significant hazards and risks, which the organization can control and over

which it can be expected to have an influence, to protect its employees and

others, whose health and safety may be affected by the activities of the

organization. All the requirements in this standard are intended to be

incorporated into any OH&S management system. This standard also

provides informative guidance on the use of the specification.

Organizations interested in obtaining licence for OH&S Management

System as per IS 18001 should ensure that they are operating the system

according to this standard. The organization should apply on the prescribed

proforma( Form IV ) at the nearest Regional Office of BIS along with

Questionnaire ( Form X ) and the prescribed application fee. The

application shall be signed by the proprietor or the Chief Executive Officer

(CEO) of the organization or any other person authorised to sign on behalf

of the organization. The name and designation of the person signing the

application must be recorded legibly in a space set apart for the purpose in

the application form. Each application must be accompanied by a

documented Occupational Health and Safety Management System

Documentation (such as OHS manual etc.)

The Directorate General of Mines Safety (DGMS) and the Directorate

General of Factory Advice Service and Labour Institutes (DGFASLI) are the

two field organizations of the Ministry of Labour and Employment in the

area of occupational safety and health in mines, factories and ports. The

Directorate General, Factory Advice Service &Labour Institutes (DGFASLI),

Mumbai,which is an attached office of the Ministry of Labour and

Employment,functions as a technical arm of the Ministry in regard to

matters concerned with safety, health and welfare of workers in factories

and ports/docks. Directorate General of Mines Safety is the Indian

Goverment Regulatory agency for safety in mines and oil-fields. The

mission of the DGMS is to continually improve safety and health standards,

practices and performance in the mining industry and upstream petroleum

industry.

Source: Business.Gov.In

Please note that this information was last updated in July 2008. The

Information shown is for guideline purposes. For precise and up-to-date

information please contact the IPTU team or visit the country government

website.

Copyright ©2008 India Pakistan

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Lectura nº 9

Índice de un Manual contable

http://www.umsystem.edu/ums/departmen

vices/manual/fullindex.shtml#1

University of Missouri

Office of the Controller

Accounting Policy and Procedure Manual (APM)

Index

About This Manual

Additions, Updates and Revisions

1 - AccountingPrinciples• 1.01 - Hierarchy of GAAP

• 1.02 - Financial Accounting Standards (FASB)

• 1.03 - Government Accounting Standards (GASB)

o 1.03.06

2 - Fiscal Responsibility• 2.10 - Cash Handling

o 2.10.05

o 2.10.15

o 2.10.80

• 2.15 - Code of Ethics

• 2.20 -

• 2.25 - Internal Controls

o 2.25.05

o 2.25

Materia: Inglés Técnico – Profesora: Patricia Rivera |

Copyright ©2008 India Pakistan Trade Unit. All Rights Reserved. Site Map

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Lectura nº 9

Índice de un Manual contable

http://www.umsystem.edu/ums/departments/fa/controller/accountingser

vices/manual/fullindex.shtml#1


Office of the Controller - Accounting Services


About This Manual

Additions, Updates and Revisions

AccountingPrinciples Hierarchy of GAAP

Financial Accounting Standards (FASB)

Government Accounting Standards (GASB)

1.03.06 - GASB 39 - Component Units

Fiscal Responsibility Cash Handling

2.10.05 - ACH Wire Cash Receipts Reports

2.10.15 - CRRs (Cash Receipts Reports)

2.10.80 - Wire Transfer Payments

Code of Ethics

Feeders

Internal Controls

2.25.05 - Internal Controls

2.25.15 - Internal Control Sub-Certification Process

Profesora: Patricia Rivera | 24

Trade Unit. All Rights Reserved. Site Map

ts/fa/controller/accountingser


Certification Process

� 2.25.15.01

� 2.25.15.02

� 2.25.15.03

� 2.25.15.04

o 2.25.40

o 2.25.50

o 2.25.55 Segregation of Duties

� 2.25.55.01 Segregation of Duties

� 2.25.55.02 Segregation of Duties

o 2.25.60

3 - General Ledger• 3.35

• 3.40

• 3.45 - PCS (Program Classification System)

o 3.45.05

o 3.45.10

o 3.45.15

• 3.50.10

• 3.50.1

• 3.50.20

• 3.50.25

• 3.50.30

• 3.50.50

• 3.50.55

• 3.50.60

10 - Auxiliary/Hospital/ServiceOperations• 10.05 -


2.25.15.01- Financial Sub-Certification

2.25.15.02 - Discretionary Sub-Certification - Explanation

2.25.15.03 - Financial Sub-Certification

2.25.15.04 - Financial Sub-Certification - Explanation

2.25.40 - Managerial Review

2.25.50 - Reconciliations

2.25.55 Segregation of Duties

2.25.55.01 Segregation of Duties - Sponsored Programs

2.25.55.02 Segregation of Duties - Delegation of Authority

2.25.60 - Security Access Validation

General Ledger 3.35 - Creation and Use of MoCodes

3.40 - Month End Closing

PCS (Program Classification System)

3.45.05 - Program Classification Structure

3.45.10 - Program Classification Structure - Codes

3.45.15 - Program Classification System Definitions

3.50.10 - Account ChartField

3.50.15 - Business Unit ChartField

3.50.20 - Class ChartField

3.50.25 - Deptid ChartField

3.50.30 - Fund ChartField

3.50.50 - Program ChartField

3.50.55 - Project ChartField - Construction and Other

3.50.60 - Project ChartiField - Grants

Auxiliary/Hospital/ServiceOperations - Sales


Explanation

Explanation

Sponsored Programs

of Authority

Codes

Program Classification System Definitions

Construction and Other

o 10.05.01

Accounts Receivable

o 10.05.05

• 10.10 -

o 10.10.25

o 10.10.80

15 - Bank Reconciliations• 15.05 -

• 15.10

• 15.15

20 - Capital Assets• 20.05

o 20.05.05

o 20.05.10

o 20.05.15

o 20.05.40

o 20.05.45

o 20.05.50

o 20.5.55

o 20.05.60

• 20.10

• 20.15

• 20.16

• 20.25

• 20.35 -

• 20.40

25 - Cash and Investment• 25.10


10.05.01 - Allowance and Writeoff of Uncollectible Miscellaneous

counts Receivable

10.05.05 - Sales Recognition

- Expenditures

10.10.25 - Missouri 2% Payments for Entertainers

10.10.80 - Sales Tax

Bank Reconciliations - Allocation of Overhead Charges on AR/BI Costs

15.10 - Daily Reconciliation

15.15 - Monthly Balancing

Capital Assets 20.05 - Additions (Word 566 KB)

20.05.05 - Artwork

20.05.10 - Buildings and Improvements

20.05.15 - Capital Account vs Non Capital Accounts

20.05.40 - Equipment

20.05.45 - Land

20.05.50 - Library Books

20.5.55 - Livestock

20.05.60 - Software Development and Purchase

20.10 - Capitalized Interest

20.15 - Depreciation

20.16 - Schedule of Depreciable Lives

20.25 - Non University Owned Equipment

- Reconciliation for Financials

20.40 - Reconciliation of Federally Funded Assets

Cash and InvestmentAccounting 25.10 - General Cash Transaction Guidelines


Allowance and Writeoff of Uncollectible Miscellaneous

Allocation of Overhead Charges on AR/BI Costs

Capital Account vs Non Capital Accounts

Reconciliation of Federally Funded Assets

• 25.20

30 - Debt• 30.05

• 30.10

• 30.15

• 30.25

• 30.35

35 - Federal and StateAppropriations• 35.5

• 35.15

40 - FinancialReporting• 40.05 Clearing Fund

• 40.10 -

• 40.15 -

• 40.50

45 - Gift and PledgeRevenue• 45.05 -

• 45.10 -

• 45.15 -

o 45.15.05

o 45.15.10

• 45.80

50 - PaymentsProcessing• 50.05

• 50.10 -

• 50.15 -

• 50.20

• 50.21


25.20 - Petty Cash

Debt 30.05 - Arbitrage Monitoring

30.10 - Capital Pool

30.15 - Capital Project Notes

30.25 - Debt / Bonds

30.35 - Internal Loans

Federal and StateAppropriations 35.5 - Capital Appropriation

35.15 - General Operating Appropriations

FinancialReporting 40.05 Clearing Fund - 0090

- Fiscal Year End Processing and Checklist

- Year End Accounts Payable Accruals

40.50 - Clearing Fund

Gift and PledgeRevenue - Cash Gifts

- Non-Cash Gifts

- Pledges

45.15.05 - Processing Gift Pledges

45.15.10 - Pledge Checklist

45.80 - Reconciliation of Development Gifts to General Ledger

PaymentsProcessing - AP Payments by ACH Wire

- AP/PO Quick Reference Guide (Excel 35 KB)

- Credit and Collection Policy for Debit Balance Payables

50.20 - Payables Processing

50.21 - Stop Pay and Replacement Checks


Reconciliation of Development Gifts to General Ledger

(Excel 35 KB)

Credit and Collection Policy for Debit Balance Payables

• 50.22

Checks

o 50.22.01

• 50.25

• 50.35

55 - Salaries • 55.60

o 55.60.01

o 55.60.02

Labor

• 55.80

60 - SponsoredPrograms• 60.05

• 60.07

o 60.07.01

• 60.10

• 60.15 Cash Management

• 60.16

• 60.20

• 60.25

• 60.30

• 60.32

• 60.35

• 60.40

• 60.50

• 60.52

• 60.57

• 60.60


50.22 - Payments Processing - Stop Pay and Replacement Payroll

50.22.01 - Affidavit for Lost Check

50.25 - Vendor Maintenance

50.35 - 1099 Definitions and Review Procedures

Salaries - Payroll 55.60 - Entering, Approving, and Reconciling Payroll

55.60.01 - Entering , Approving, and Reconciling Payroll

55.60.02 - Entering , Approving, and Reconciling Payroll

55.80 - Vacation Accrual

SponsoredPrograms 60.05 - Accounting for Sponsored Federal Appropriations

60.07 - Allowable Costs / Cost Principles

60.07.01 - Activities Allowed or Unallowed - Certification

60.10 - Allowance and Write-off for Uncollectible Grants Receivables

60.15 Cash Management - Letters of Credit

60.16 - Billing - non-letter of credit

0.20 - Closing Sponsored Awards

60.25 - Grant Funded Construction Projects

60.30 - Cost Share

60.32 - Effort Verification Reporting

60.35 - Establishing an Award

60.40 - Federal Flat Rate

60.50 - Payments to Research Study Participants

60.52 - Period of Availability

60.57 - Procurement and Suspension and Debarment

60.60 - Program Income


Stop Pay and Replacement Payroll

Entering, Approving, and Reconciling Payroll

Approving, and Reconciling Payroll – Web Time

Entering , Approving, and Reconciling Payroll – Time and

nting for Sponsored Federal Appropriations

Certification

off for Uncollectible Grants Receivables

Payments to Research Study Participants

Procurement and Suspension and Debarment

• 60.65

• 60.67

• 60.70

• 60.80

• 60.85

o 60.85.01

o 60.85.02

o 60.85.03

65 - StudentRevenue• 65.05

• 65.10

• 65.15

• 65.20 -

• 65.25 -

• 65.30 -

70 - Transfers• 70.15 -

75 - UBI • 75.60 -

99 – GlossaryCopyright © 2003

rights reserved.


60.65 - Reconciliation of Federally Funded Capital Assets

60.67 - Reporting

- Revenue Recognition

60.80 - Special Tests and Provisions

60.85 - Sub-Recipient Monitoring

60.85.01 - Federal Sub Recipient Questionnaire

60.85.02 - A-133 Sub Recipient Monitoring Letter

60.85.03 - Risk Assessment Worksheet

StudentRevenue 65.05 - Allowance and Writeoff for Uncollectible Student Accounts

65.10 - Allowance and Writeoff for Uncollectible Student Loans

65.15 - Deferral of Summer Tuition Revenue and Related Expenses

- Recording Student Tuition and Fees

- Scholarship Allowance & Scholarship Expense

- Tuition and Fee Refunds

Transfers - Transfers

- Unrelated Business Income Description and Annual Survey

Glossary Copyright © 2003-2010 The Curators of the University of Missouri

rights reserved.


Reconciliation of Federally Funded Capital Assets

133 Sub Recipient Monitoring Letter

Allowance and Writeoff for Uncollectible Student Accounts

Allowance and Writeoff for Uncollectible Student Loans

Deferral of Summer Tuition Revenue and Related Expenses

Scholarship Allowance & Scholarship Expense

Unrelated Business Income Description and Annual Survey

University of Missouri.All


Lectura nº 10

Código de Ética de un Manual Contable


Finance and Administration

Code of Ethics Statement

Finance and Administration staff shall

1. perform their duties in accordance with the appropriate recognized ethical and legal standards;

2. practice honesty and integrity in all aspects of their work;

3. exhibit professionalism in the workplace, and conduct themselves in a way that will continue to promote the public's confidence in the integrity of the University;

4. be fair-minded, non-discriminatory, and treat all individuals, both internal and external to the University community equitably, with civility, respect and dignity;

5. fulfill their assigned responsibilities, and be proactive in developing the skills necessary to provide high job performance;

6. exercise fiduciary responsibility with respect to safeguarding the University’s assets;

7. exercise custodial responsibility with respect to the use of University property and resources;

8. exercise, within the requirements of the Missouri Public Records law, confidentiality with respect to information, records, and data management, respecting the rights and privacy of individuals;

9. take action to mitigate any real or perceived conflicts of interest; and

10. comply with Federal and State laws and regulations and University policies and procedures.

Respuesta al cuadro 1. Skimming – Interferencias en la velocidad y

la comprensión

La fenomenal capacidad de la mente humana, según una investigación en la

Universidad de Cambridge, dice que no importa el orden de las letras en

una palabra, sino que la primera y la última letras estén en el lugar correcto.

Aunque el resto sea un desastre total, usted aún podrá leerlo sin problema.

Esto ocurre porque la mente humana no puede leer todas y cada una de las

letras por sí solas, sino más bien la palabra como un todo. Increíble, no?

Módulo 3

Unidad 3

Lectura 3: Uso del Diccionario y

Glosarios Bilingües y

Monolingües




En los módulos anteriores planteábamos la necesidad de entender las ideas generales de lo que leemos. También hablamos de deducir significados a partir de contextos. No obstante, también tenemos la necesidad de identificar y entender palabras específicas y para ello, recurriremos a los diccionarios.

En primer lugar, tenemos los diccionarios bilingües que son de utilidad para quienes no saben inglés. Para quienes tienen conocimientos de inglés y desean acrecentar su vocabulario, están los diccionarios monolingües (e.g., inglés-inglés). Cuando hablamos de diccionarios, nos referimos tanto a los impresos como a los virtuales.

Antes de analizar la forma en que debemos usarlos, citaremos los nombres de algunos buenos diccionarios monolingües, bilingües y links:

Diccionarios Monolingües:

Inglés

Cambridge Advanced Learner´s Dictionary (3rd Edition) + CD-ROM Cambridge University Press Cambridge Essential English Dictionary Cambridge University Press Collins Cobuild Intermediate Dictionary of American English + CD-ROM Collins Cobuild Dictionary of Contemporary English for Advanced Learners + DVD ROM (New Edition) Pearson Longman Business English Dictionary with CD-ROM - New Edition Pearson Longman Dictionary of English Language and Culture New Edition Pearson MacMillan English Dictionary for Advanced Learners - with CD-ROM. Rundell,Michael, MacMillan Merriam-Webster´s Advanced Learner´s Dictionary Merriam Webster Merriam-Webster´s Collegiate Dictionary – 11th Edition Merriam Webster

Español

Diccionario de la Lengua Española Real Academia Española ESPASA


Diccionarios Bilingües (Inglés / Español /

Inglés):

Collins Spanish Dictionary - Spanish-English / English-Spanish Harper Collins USA Larousse Diccionario Standard + CD-ROM - Español/Inglés Inglés/Español AIQUE Oxford Spanish Dictionary + CD-ROM – 4th Edition Oxford

Diccionarios Específicos:

Larousse Diccionario Económico, Comercial y Financiero (Nueva Edición) AIQUE

Links

Bilingüe:

http://espanol.babylon.com/affiliates/landing/index.php?id=10763 (para bajar el Spanish English Babylon free dictionary) http://www.wordreference.com/ http://www.thefreedictionary.com/ http://ukcatalogue.oup.com/category/academic/language/reference/dictionaries.do

Inglés:

http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/connector

Español:

http://www.rae.es/rae.html http://www.educar.org/diccionario


Específicos:

http://www.spanish-translator-services.com/espanol/diccionarios/finanzas-ingles-espanol/s/Securities_and_Exchange_Commission_SEC.htm

http://financial-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/

http://www.dicoland.com/es/contabilidad/las-palabras-clave-de-la-contabilidad-y-de-la-gestion-3582

(si desea comprarlo)


Uso del diccionario bilingüe

El diccionario bilingüe, por lo general, es utilizado para buscar equivalentes de una palabra o frase en otro idioma, frecuentemente es bidireccional (ej. inglés-español, español-inglés) y está organizado alfabéticamente. En ocasiones, también incluirá ejemplos de la aplicación de la palabra buscada. No obstante, estos diccionarios no dan la definición del término ya que se presupone que el usuario conoce su significado y que, de no conocerlo, lo consultará en un diccionario monolingüe.

Frecuentemente, buscamos palabras aisladas. La entrada en el diccionario, si éste es de calidad, estará dividida mostrando las distintas acepciones del término o sus variantes. También incluirá la fonética y la función gramatical del mismo.

El siguiente cuadro nos muestra las partes que componen una entrada de una palabra en un diccionario bilingüe, en la sección de inglés - español:

bridge1 n [brɪdʒ]

A COUNTABLE1 puente (m)

to build bridges = tender un puente (de unión)we'll cross that bridge when we come to it = eseproblema lo resolveremos cuando llegue el momento;

see burn1 vt A1, water1 A

2 (on ship) puente (m) (de mando) 3 (of nose) caballete (m)4 (of glasses) puente (m)5 (of stringed instrument) puente (m), alzaprima (f), masculine article in singular B COUNTABLE(Dentistry) puente (m) C UNCOUNTABLE (card game) bridge (m)contract bridge = bridge-contrato (m)auction bridge = bridge (m) subastadobridge party reunión (f) de bridgebridge player jugador, -dora (m, f) de bridge

brew2

A. vt

1. [beer] fabricar*, hacer*

2. [tea] preparar, hacer*

3. [trouble/mischief] tramar, maquinar

B. vi

1. (make beer) fabricar* cerveza

2. [tea] let the tea brew for 5 minutes = deje el té en infusión 5 minutos, deje reposar el té 5 minutos

the tea is brewing = el té se está haciendo

3. [storm] avecinarse

Phrasal Verbs

brew up v + adv

1. (develop) a storm is brewing up = se avecina unatormenta

trouble is brewing up = se va a armar lío (familiar)

2. (make tea) (British English, colloquial) hacer* té

Guía para entender una entrada Inglés-Español (I)

© Oxford Spanish Dictionary 3rd edition 0-19-860475-0© Oxford University Press 2007

contextualizaciones en corchetes

entrada símbolos fonéticos

indicadores de significado

en paréntesis

traducción del

sustantivo

expresiones idiomáticas

subdivisiones

de sentido

significados

principales

etiquetas para

indicar registro

phrasal

verbs

al final

verbos con

irregularidades

ortográficas -

marcadas

con asterisco

Oxford Language Dictionaries Online – Dictionary Skills Resource Pack

Como podemos observar, el término ―bridge‖ tiene numerosas acepciones o subdivisiones de sentido, que variarán según el contexto en que se use. Las subdivisiones de sentido y los indicadores de significado, mostrados entre paréntesis, equivalen a lo que en inglés se llama ―collocation‖, el uso semántico que tiene el vocablo según el contexto en el que se utilice.


kind2 adj -er, -est

[offer/gesture] amable

he's very kind = es muy buena persona

what a kind thought! = ¡qué amabilidad! she has a kind heart = tiene buen corazón

to be kind to sb

she's always been kind to me = siempre ha sido muy

amable conmigo or se ha portado muy bien conmigo

life has been kind to him = la vida lo ha tratado bienit's very kind to your skin = no daña la piel…

kind1 [kaɪnd] nA.

(sort, type)

1. (of things) tipo (m), clase (f)

of all kinds = de todo tipo, de toda clase

what kind of house is it? = ¿qué tipo de casa es? I like the kind with walnuts in = me gustan las/los que

tienen nueces

it wasn't his kind of book = no era el tipo de libro que le

gusta

the usual kind of thing = lo de siempre…

Guía para entender una entrada Inglés-Español (II)

a kind offer

© Oxford Spanish Dictionary 3rd edition 0-19-860475-0

una amable oferta La miró comprensivo

© Oxf ord Univ ersity Press 2007

acotar el

significado

usando contexto

kind: sustantivo

o adjetivo?


El diccionario bilingüe también nos muestra la función gramatical que el término que buscamos tiene dentro de la oración, así como los distintos contextos que sirven para acotar significados.

Recordemos que cuando hablamos de función gramatical, nos referimos a si la palabra es sustantivo, adjetivo, adverbio, etc. En el caso de los adjetivos y adverbios, también muestra sus formas comparativas y superlativas (kind2

adj –er, -est – es decir, kinder, kindest).

Ahora veamos la sección de Español – Inglés de un diccionario bilingüe.


deber1

A. vt1. [dinero] to owe

le deben 15.000 pesos/dos mesesde sueldo = they owe her 15,000 pesos/two months' salary quieren que les paguen lo que…

More on this wordVer nota gramaticalpara esta palabra

recorrerA. vt

1. [país/ciudad] recorrieron toda España en tren = they traveled o went all over Spain by train ha recorrido mucho mundo = he has been all over the place o the world recorrimos toda la costa del sur = we went o traveled the whole length of the south coast

Guía para entender una entrada Español-Inglés

© Oxford Spanish Dictionary 3rd edition 0-19-860475-0© Oxford University Pre ss 2007

sustantivos mostrados

con su género

Avisos sobre trucos de traduc-

ción en More on this word

links a tablas de verbos

nenúfar m

water lily

More on this wordVer uso de este verbo

Deber

En términos generales, cuando deber se emplea como…


En las versiones online, por ejemplo de este diccionario, se encuentran links que expanden la función tradicional del diccionario bilingüe, conduciendo a usos gramaticales y tablas de conjugaciones verbales.

En el caso del español también muestran los sustantivos con su género, además de los ejemplos de uso tanto en español como en inglés.

Este diccionario online, agrega la característica de un link que conduce a trucos y consejos para traducir, aplicando lo relacionado con el uso apropiado según contexto y colocaciones.

Cuando el diccionario bilingüe es de buena calidad, recoge una cantidad importante de ejemplos que ilustran los patrones colocacionales de cada lengua.

Y, citando a Silvia Montero Martínez1:

―El COLLINS y el OXFORD suelen indicar las colocaciones fundamentalmente bajo la entrada correspondiente al adjetivo, aunque también bajo el sustantivo o bajo las entradas correspondientes a ambos colocados (Corpas Pastor 1990: 331, 332). Los procedimientos que utilizan para ello, tanto en la sección español-inglés como en la sección inglés-español, son: i) bajo la entrada para el adjetivo aparece en cursiva el

1 http://elies.rediris.es/elies19/cap3442.html - ISSN: 1139-8736 - Depósito Legal: B-37271-2002 -

Copyright: © Silvia Montero Martínez


sustantivo con el cual se coloca, y tras éste se da la traducción del adjetivo de dicha colocación. Los sustantivos en cursiva no siguen el orden alfabético pero se agrupan por acepciones. Ésta es la forma en que incluyen la colocación 'fiery speech':

Figura 3.15: Entrada del COLLINS correspondiente a 'fiery'

Figura 3.16: Entrada del OXFORD correspondiente a 'fiery'

Otras veces, la palabra puede venir precedida por una acotación de uso que indica, por ejemplo, un uso figurado de la palabra en esa acepción y, por consiguiente, en esa colocación. Esto ocurre en colocaciones como 'defensor acérrimo':

Figura 3.17: Entrada del COLLINS correspondiente a 'acérrimo'

Figura 3.18: Entrada del OXFORD correspondiente a 'acérrimo'

La colocación aparece como ejemplo en negrita, seguida de su equivalente de traducción, en letra redonda. Las colocaciones se agrupan por acepciones y aparecen al final, tras los distintos equivalentes de traducción de la entrada, así como las indicaciones en cursiva de las colocaciones. De esta forma aparece la colocación 'raw material':

Figura 3.19: Entrada del COLLINS correspondiente a 'raw'

Figura 3.20: Entrada del OXFORD correspondiente a 'raw material' ―

Fin de la cita


Cómo buscar palabras en el diccionario

bilingüe

Como dijimos antes los diccionarios bilingües no traen la definición de la palabra sino equivalentes y / o ejemplos de aplicación de estas palabras.

Muchas palabras tienen más de una forma:

Los sustantivos (man, woman, tree) (hombre, mujer, árbol) pueden ser:

singulares o plurales

man>men

woman>women

tree>trees

hombre>hombres

mujer>mujeres

árbol>árboles

masculinos o femeninos

man>woman

boy>girl

hombre>mujer

niño>niña

Los adjetivos (pretty, expensive) pueden ser:

comparativos y superlativos,

prettier – prettiest

more expensive – most expensive Los verbos pueden ser conjugados en diferentes tiempos.

Infinitivo – to write

Base (infinitivo sin to / no conjugado) – write

Presente simple – write / writes

Etc.

Algo a tener en cuenta al momento de buscar una entrada de diccionario,

por ejemplo, para la palabra costs, será necesario sustituir la terminación

plural - s por el término singular. Cuando busque el significado de cost

encontrará las acepciones del mismo y, entre ellas el agregado ~s con el

significado que corresponde a esta forma plural.

Encontrar la palabra clave

Cuando se desea buscar un término compuesto por varias palabras, por ejemplo cost source table, lo más aconsejable es empezar a buscar por el segundo término ―source‖, (y/o, si lo hubiera, por el tercero, ―table‖) en lugar de quedarse con el primero, ―cost‖, dado que, por lo general, no encontrará la expresión completa.

La palabra clave es normalmente un sustantivo o un verbo.


El Glosario

Según lo define el Diccionario de la lengua española © 2005 Espasa-Calpe:

Glosario:

1.m. Repertorio de palabras difíciles o dudosas con su explicación:

la novela cuenta con un glosario de los lugares geográficos en los que se desarrolla.

2.Vocabulario de términos de una misma disciplina, de un mismo campo de estudio, de un dialecto o de un autor, definidos o comentados:

un glosario de términos de telecomunicaciones.

3.Conjunto de glosas:

glosario de poesía popular.

En nuestro caso, la que aplica es la segunda acepción. El glosario puede ser monolingüe o bilingüe. Para poder visualizarlo mejor, fijémonos en el que sigue:

Accounting, Banking and Financial

English-Spanish Glossary

A abatement – reducción account - cuenta

account number - número de cuenta

accounts payable – cuentas por pagar

accounts receivable – cuentas por cobrar

account statement - estado de cuenta

account structures – sistemas contables

blocked account -cuenta bloqueada

checking account - cuenta corriente

checking account - cuenta de cheques

savings account - cuenta de ahorros

accounting - contabilidad active financial line – línea financiera activa active vendor – vendedor activo addenda - anexos adjustable rate - tasa de interés ajustable affidavit – declaración jurada agreement - acuerdo amendment – enmienda annual fee - cargo anual annual percentage - tasa de porcentaje anual appraisal - valoración appraisal – tasación


appraisal report - informe de tasación appropriation – distribución, asignación assumption - asunción assumable mortgage - hipoteca asumible auction - subasta automatic data processing - procesamiento de datos automático

B balance - saldo bank - banco banker - banquero banking system - sistema bancario bankruptcy - bancarrota bankruptcy – quiebra

to go bankrupt - declararse en quiebra batch – Lote

batch number – número de lote

batch-sequence number – número de secuencia de lote bill - billete bill for collection – factura de cobranzas branch - sucursal breakeven point - punto de equilibrio budget – presupuesto

budget restriction – restricción presupuestaria

budget type – tipo de presupuesto

budgeting fund – fondo de presupuesto business

business birth - nacimiento del negocio

business death - muerte del negocio

business dissolution - disolución del negocio

business failure - fracaso del negocio

business plan - plan de negocio

business start - comienzo del negocio

C cancel / reissue – cancelación / reexpedición

cancellation (CA) – cancelación

cancelled loan - préstamo cancelado cap - límite cap - top capital - capital

capital budget – presupuesto de capital

capital expenditures - gastos en inversión de capital

capital expenses – gastos / inversión de capital

capital lease: arrendamiento de capital

capital surplus – excedente de capital

capitalized property - propiedad capitalizada cash - efectivo


cash discount - descuento por pago en efectivo

cash flow - flujo de efectivo

cash payment - pago en efectivo certificate of title - certificado de titulo certification – certificación character - carácter charge-off - anulación en libros

charged off loan - préstamo cancelado

check - cheque

blank check - cheque en blanco

bounced check - cheque rechazado

cashier's check - cheque de caja

certified check - cheque certificado

checkbook - chequera

overdrawn check - cheque sin fondos

travelers’ checks - cheques de viajero

voided check - cheque anulado

payable - pagable

to the bearer - al portador

date - fecha

signature – firma

counterfeited - falsificado

clause - cláusula clear - compensar

clearing - compensación

clearing house - cámara de compensación

closing - cierre

closed loan - préstamo cerrado

closing costs - costos de cierre

closing date - fecha de cierre

closeout – liquidación

co-borrower - co-deudor coin - moneda

collateral – colateral

collateral document - documento colateral collateral - garantía commission - comisión component – componente compromise - compromiso condition - condición consortium - consorcio

contingent liability - responsabilidad eventual contract structure – estructura contractual corporation - corporación


corporation - sociedad anónima

cosigner - co-signatario costs – costes costs – costos

cost center – centro de costos

cost distribution table (SCD) – tabla de distribución de costos

cost source table (SCS) – tabla de fuente de costos

cost type – tipo de costo

credit - crédito

credit rating - clasificación crediticia

credit report - reporte de crédito

credit history - historial de crédito currency - moneda

D data element - elemento de datos debenture - obligación debt - deuda

debt capital - capital de deuda

debt financing - financiamiento de deuda

debt service funds – fondos de servicios de deuda

deed - escritura

deed of trust - escritura de fideicomiso

default - incumplimiento

default value – valor de la cesación de pago defer - diferir

deferred income – ingreso diferido

deferred loan - préstamo diferido

delegate – delegar; delegado delinquent payment - pago atrasado deposit - depósito

deposit in transit - depósito en tránsito

direct deposit - depósito directo

deposit slip - boleta de depósito

disbursement - desembolso

disbursing officer - oficial de desembolso divestiture - desposeimiento down payment - pago inicial down payment - enganche drawdown – giro driver's license - licencia de conducir due date - fecha de vencimiento


E

earning power - poder adquisitivo easement - servidumbre electronic funds transfer - transferencia electrónica de fondos employer Identification Number (EIN) – número de identificación del empleador encumbered expenditure (EN) – gastos gravados encumbered revenue (ER) – ingresos gravados encumbrances Outstanding – gravámenes pendientes enterprise - empresa

enterprise funds – fondos empresarios

entrepreneur - empresario emprendedor entry – asiento equity - equidad equity - valor liquido exchange rate - tasa de cambio execute – ejecutar; dar cumplimiento a expenditure – gasto; erogación external warrant – garantía externa

F figure - cifra financial reporting structure – estructura de información financiera financial transaction – transacción financiera fixed - fijo

fixed assets – activos fijos

fixed interest -interés fijo

foreclosure - ejecución forgery – falsificación form - formulario funds - fondos

fund structure – estructura del fondo

G GAAP – Generally Accepted Accounting Principles – PCGA Principios Contables Generalmente Aceptados general warrant – garantía general going concern assumption – presunción (o expectativa a futuro) del negocio en marcha grace period - período de gracia grant structure – estructura de subsidio guarantee - fianza guarantor - fiador I ID - documento de identificación inactive vendor – vendedor inactivo inspection - inspección installment - plazo insufficient funds - fondos insuficientes


interest - interés

interest rate - tasa de interés

J joint account - cuenta conjunta L ledger – libro de contabilidad legal representative - representante legal liability – pasivo; exigible lien - embargo preventivo line of credit - linea de crédito liquidation - liquidación

liquidation procedure – procedimiento de liquidación

liquidation value - valor de liquidación

litigation - litigio loan - préstamo

bridge loan - préstamo puente

construction loan - préstamo de construcción

conventional loan - préstamo convencional

loan agreement - acuerdo de préstamo

loan officer - agente de préstamos

loan term - plazo del préstamo

long term - largo plazo

mortgage loan - préstamo hipotecario

mortgage loan application - solicitud de un préstamo hipotecario o foreclosure - ejecución hipotecaria o mortgagee - acreedor hipotecario o mortgagor - deudor hipotecario

take out a loan - sacar un préstamo lock-in rate - tasa de interés asegurada

M manager - gerente market value - valor del mercado markup - margen de beneficio maturity - vencimiento maximum - máximo merger - fusión minimum - mínimo money - dinero monthly payment – mensualidad mortgage - hipoteca

N negotiation - negociación

negotiation dispute - conflicto de la negociación

net - neto

net assets – activo neto

net-change rollup – consolidación de cambio neto


net worth - valor neto

nominal accounts – cuentas nominales nominal ledger – libro mayor

O obligations - obligaciones offer - oferta one-sided journal entry – asiento diario parcial operating budget – presupuesto operativo ordinary interest - interés ordinario outlays - gastos overdraft - sobregiro

overdraft - giro en descubierto

overdraft protection - cobertura de sobregiros overhead accounts table – tabla de cuentas indirectas o de estructura

P paper work - papeleo partnership - sociedad passive financial line – línea financiera de pasivos passport - pasaporte password - contraseña patent - patente payroll – nómina; planilla de sueldos per diem allowance – viáticos planned revenue – ingreso planificado posting month – mes de asiento power of attorney - poder pre-approved - pre-aprovado prepayment – pago anticipado prime rate - tasa preferencial principal - capital procurement officer – oficial de compras proprietorship - propiedad

R ratio - proporción real accounts – cuentas reales real estate - bienes raíces receipt - recibo reconciled date – fecha de conciliación reference number - número de referencia reimbursable services – servicios reembolsables remittance advice – notificación de remesas remittance loan facility - línea de crédito respaldada con flujo de remesas requesting agency – agencia solicitante restricted cash – caja / depósitos de disponibilidad restringida restricted revenue – renta / ingresos de disponibilidad restringida returned check – cheque devuelto return on investment - rendimiento de la inversión returned payment – pago devuelto revenue – renta; ingresos

revenue deferral – aplazamiento de ingresos


reversal – revertir

reversed payment – pago revertido routing number - número de identificación

S safety box - cajilla de seguridad scheduled payment – pago programado settlement day – día de conciliación short term - corto plazo staledate – fecha de caducidad stop

stop payment - suspensión del pago

stop payment fee - cargo por suspensión del pago subaccount – subcuenta

T tax identification number (TIN) – número de identificación fiscal teller - cajero teller machine - cajero automático transaction - transacción transfer - transferencia U unobligated balance – balance no comprometido unrestricted net asset - activo neto no restringido o de libre disposición unrestricted revenue – ingreso no restringido o de libre disposición

V variable interest - interés variable venture capital - capital de riesgo

W

warrant – garantía window - ventanilla wire transfer – transferencia electrónica withdrawal - retiro word processing - procesamiento de textos

Essential Verbs to apply - aplicar to cancel - cancelar to cash - cobrar to certify - certificar to charge - cobrar to close - cerrar to deposit - depositar to endorse - endosar to fill out - llenar to finance - financiar to fix - fijar to foreclose - ejecutar


to grant - conceder to guarantee - garantizar to invest - invertir to issue - emitir to loan - prestar to order - ordenar to pay - pagar to save - ahorrar to send - enviar to sign - firmar to transfer - transferir to withdraw - retirar

Glosario Monolingüe que acompaña a la

lectura que sigue.

GLOSSARY

1099 - MISC - An Internal Revenue Service (IRS) tax statement issued to vendors receiving payments of $600.00 or more for professional services including rents and leases, medical services, and non-employee compensation.

Abatement - A refund of expenditures, usually due to an overpayment, duplicate payment, or reimbursement for defective or returned merchandise.

Account Structures - Maintain the real and nominal accounts according to fund accounting and reporting requirements and generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP). The Division of Finance sets up and maintains account structures.

Accounts Payable (PY) - A liability open item used to accrue amounts owed to vendors of the state and other payees over time.

Accounts Receivable (RC) - An open item used to record amounts owed the state. Revenue is recorded in the agency fund/appropriation at the time the receivable is recorded.

Active Financial Line - A term used to refer to the financial lines in an add or change RSA transaction that contain financial amounts and/or numerators and IEAX cross-references to passive financial lines. Generally, the expenditure financial lines entered by the requesting agency are the active lines in an RSA transaction. Also see the definitions for IEAX and Passive Financial Line.

Active Vendor - Vendor records on the VMF with a status of ―AA.‖ An active vendor can be used as the pay vendor on a warrant request transaction or as a reference in an open item transaction.

Add/Change Override - To change financial and/or vendor data associated with a 1099 payment. The override transaction affects 1099 reporting information only. It does not change the actual warrant or information recorded in AKSAS.


Addenda – Remittance information transmitted with an EDI payment. Some vendors may receive only one addenda per payment and others may receive multiple addenda records with each payment depending upon the EDI payment format chosen by the vendor. Usually, large businesses expecting multiple payments on any given day from different departments will choose to receive multiple addenda records.

Affidavit - A written statement of responsibility which is acknowledged and accepted by an employee by signing the affidavit.

Agency Journal Entry - Balanced debit and credit entries used to record increases and decreases in the balances of fund assets, liabilities, and equities; correct entries for revenue and expenditure transactions; and liquidate or adjust the liquidation of open items. Agency journal entries are also used to record financial coding for accounts payable open items.

Agency Receipt (AG) - An open item used to record the financial coding for cash collections received by agencies and transmitted to the Department of Revenue, Treasury Division. Agency receipts have no financial effect and the revenue is not available for agency spending until the agency receipt is matched to a treasury receipt and cleared by a Treasury Finance Journal Entry.

Agency Security Contact - An individual authorized by the Division of Finance as having the authority to request security changes in AKSAS.

AKSAS - Acronym for the Alaska Statewide Accounting System. AKSAS is a mainframe application maintained by the Division of Finance and used by authorized individuals to manage and track the state’s financial resources. AKSAS is designed to present fairly and with full disclosure the financial position and Accounting Procedures Manual, Financial Transactions results of financial operations of the funds and account groups of the state in conformity with generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP).

AKSAS RD Code - A department-specific, five-digit code assigned to an employee for user identification in the Alaska Statewide Accounting System (AKSAS). The RD (responsibility/distribution) code and password are used to specify the functions a user is authorized to perform in AKSAS. RD codes are also the electronic signature used by certifying officers and those responsible for additional levels of approval for transactions.

Alternate Access - To allow access to transactions entered by an RD code other than the input user, certifier, or authorizer. RD codes authorized to access other transactions are identified on the SMF Alternate Access Table (SAA) maintained by the Division of Finance.

Amendment - A change in the amount or scope of a reimbursable services agreement.

Appointing Authority - A department head (commissioner) or delegated authority responsible for appointing certifying officers on the AKSAS Certifying Officer’s Affidavit.

Appropriation - A legislative authorization to spend the resources of the state in carrying out specified activities.

Appropriation Budget - The authorized expenditures approved by the legislature in the appropriations bill, estimated restricted receipts specified


for appropriations financed by restricted receipts, and unrestricted revenue estimates (projections developed by the Department of Revenue for collections of general revenues of the state).

Appropriation Structure - Maintains the statewide budget for the fiscal year. The Office of Management and Budget (OMB) and the Division of Finance oversee the recording of the budget to the appropriation structures. Agencies can add lower level appropriation entities to manage and control spending and to record receipts.

Appropriations Bill - A legislative document specifying the spending ceilings for appropriations and, if the activity is financed by restricted receipts, the amount of restricted receipts to be collected.

Approving Officer - An employee delegated the authority to approve various types of financial transactions for payment.

Auto AB - A software application maintained by the Office of Management and Budget (OMB) to record and distribute original budget authorizations between multiple collocation codes and ledger codes within a total control appropriation.

Batch - One or more transactions grouped together to facilitate processing.

Batch Number - A seven-digit, sequentially assigned number identifying a group of transactions.

Batch-Sequence Number - Generally refers to the combination of the two-character source system ID (SSI), the seven-digit batch number, and the four-digit sequence number for a transaction. See Source System ID, Batch Number, and Sequence Number.

Bill for Collection - Statewide form (02-472) used to charge a debtor for amounts owed the state. Represents the value of goods, services, and materials provided by the state on a fee, actual cost, or other reimbursable basis.

BRU - An acronym for Budget Request Unit. A state government unit for which a formal budget must be prepared. Usually this is the appropriation level.

Budget Entity - The allocation level of an appropriation.

Budget Restriction - To reserve a portion of an authorization to ensure no over-expenditures can occur due to uncorrectable appropriated revenues. Budget restrictions are recorded to defer revenue that will not be collected in the fiscal period and restrict expenditures funded by the uncorrectable revenues. Restrictions are recorded in AKSAS as budget type ―RST,‖ posting type 08. See Revenue Deferral.

Budget Type - An AKSAS indicator identifying the budget as original (ORG), supplemental (SUP), revised program (RPG), restricted (RST), or lapsed (LPs). See Original Appropriation, Supplemental Appropriation, Revised Program, and Budget Restriction.

Budgeting Fund - The fund through which receipts and expenditures are recorded.


Cancel/Reissue (CR) - To cancel and reissue an active, unredeemed general warrant in AKSAS mutilated during the printing or distribution process.

Cancellation (CA) - To cancel an active, unredeemed warrant in AKSAS so the warrant is no longer redeemable. Cancellations are processed when a warrant is issued in error or for an incorrect amount and the physical warrant is in hand.

Capital Budget - The authorized source of revenues and authorized expenditures for the construction or purchase of state assets.

Capital Projects Funds - Accounts for general obligation bond proceeds and other financial resources appropriated to capital projects funds to be used for the acquisition, construction, or improvement of major capital facilities (other than those financed by the general fund, proprietary funds, and trust funds).

CARD - A State of Alaska MasterCard Corporate Card issued to a state employee for travel and/or procurement purposes.

Cash-in-Transit - Cash received by an agency and transmitted to the Department of Revenue, Treasury Division but not yet recognized as deposits by the Treasury Division.

Central Records Warehouse - The records storage area where archive boxes are kept. The state contracts with an outside vendor to provide storage space for centrally archived records.

Certification - An online process by an authorized certifying officer that confirms a transaction is accurate and legal and releases the transaction for processing.

Certifying Officer - A department head (commissioner) or responsible representative designated by a department head as having the authority to certify various types of AKSAS transactions.

Certifying RD Code - An AKSAS RD code identified on the SMF Authorized RD Code Table (SAU) as having authority to certify a transaction for a specific source RD code and transaction code. Multiple certifying RD codes may be identified for a single source RD code/transaction code combination. However, only one certifying RD code must certify the transaction.

CICS ID - A logon ID assigned by the Information Technology Group (ITG) that allows access to applications located on the State of Alaska Computer Network. A user must have a CICS Logon ID to access AKSAS.

CIP - An acronym for Capital Improvement Project. A term used to describe a capital project appropriation. This type of appropriation can extend beyond the current fiscal year and is generally set up for a period of five years. A CIP can be extended as defined in AS 37.25.020 - Unexpended Balance of Appropriations for Capital Projects.

Closeout - The process of finalizing a completed reimbursable services agreement by liquidating any balance remaining in the open item. An amended Form 02-098 (Reimbursable Services Agreement) is processed for the closeout if required by department procedures.


Collocation Code - An eight-digit code that identifies the accounting structure (fund, appropriation, organization, and internal program) and links the appropriation to the fund through which the appropriation's financial activity is authorized.

Component - Individual elements of reporting structures. Reporting structures are divided into components according to the way financial data should be summarized. An allocation is a component of an appropriation, for example, and a division is a component of an agency organizational structure.

Contract Structure - Agency-assigned entities used to record and report financial activity on an inception-to-date basis across multiple fiscal years or federal fiscal years. Contracts can be maintained as subsidiary ledgers to provide detail by contractor or subgrantee of installment payments according to the contract budget.

Cost Center - Organizational or functional groups, such as region or department, with common overhead rates.

Cost Distribution Table (SCD) - Used in processing 450-xx: Time & Equipment transactions. Identifies cost type, distribution expenditure account, base rate factor, and whether the expenditure represents labor costs or equipment usage.

Cost Source Table (SCS) - Used in processing 450-xx: Time & Equipment transactions. Identifies valid cost types for specific Source RD codes; default ledger code; offset program, ledger and account codes; and overhead allocation code and rate.

Cost Type - A category of time or equipment usage such as regular time, overtime, or equipment use.

CTA - Acronym for Central Travel Account. The CTA is a MasterCard account set up with travel agents for the purpose of procuring transportation for individuals traveling on state business. Each agency has its own accounts.

Debt Service Funds - Accounts for the accumulation of resources for, and the payment of, principal, interest, and related costs of general obligation bonds.

Default Value - Field data that is system-supplied when a transaction screen is updated. For some required data entry fields AKSAS supplies data if the field is left blank. For example, the Document Number field defaults to the batch-sequence number.

Delegate - To give an individual the authority to act as one’s representative for approving, certifying, and/or purchasing services or supplies.

Deletion (DR) - To delete an active, unprinted general warrant in AKSAS to stop the warrant from being printed on the scheduled print date. Also used to delete an EDI payment request that has not been included in the FEDI process.

Disbursement - Payment issued for a valid obligation of the state to a vendor or other payee.


Drawdown - A method used to request payment from the federal government for various federal grants and programs.

Dual Authorization - An online process that provides additional approval for a transaction and authorizes the transaction for overnight processing.

Dual Authorization RD Code - The RD code of the individual who must approve a transaction before the transaction can process. Dual authorization RD codes are identified on the SMF Authorized RD Code Table (SAU) and/or on the transaction data entry screen. A single transaction may have up to three authorizers. If multiple authorizers are designated for a transaction, the transaction must be authorized by each before it can be processed.

EDI (Electronic Data Interchange) - The electronic transmission of business documents in a standard format.

EDI Vendor - A vendor capable of receiving payment through Electronic Data Interchange (EDI).

Employer Identification Number (EIN) - Nine-digit tax identification number assigned by the Internal Revenue Service to businesses for federal tax reporting purposes. Used in the same way a Social Security Number (SSN) is used for individuals and sole proprietorships.

Encumbered Expenditure (EN) - An AKSAS open item type used to earmark a set amount of funds for payment of a particular project or purpose. Also called an encumbrance.

Encumbered Revenue (ER) - An AKSAS open item type used to record amounts owed the state as planned revenue until the revenue is received.

Encumbrances Outstanding - Refers to encumbrances existing on the Open Item File in AKSAS.

Enterprise Funds - Accounts for business-like state activities that provide goods and/or services to the public and are financed primarily through user charges.

Equipment Master File - Used in processing 450-xx: Time & Equipment transactions. Identifies equipment by description, class, and per mile or per hour.

Execute - To record an expenditure for the requesting agency and a receipt for the servicing agency by processing an execute RSA transaction against an RSA open item. The execute RSA transaction liquidates the encumbered expenditure and the encumbered revenue.

Expenditure - The disbursement of funds for capital, operating, and other charges or costs identified by the nature of the cost (personal services, commodities, etc.) and by the type of goods or services purchased.

External Warrant - Warrants issued and printed outside of AKSAS such as field warrants, handwrites, payroll warrants, permanent fund dividend warrants, etc. External warrants are recorded in AKSAS with online transactions or with transactions interfaced from the external system.


FEDI (Financial Electronic Data Interchange) - The electronic transmission of financial data in a standard format. Financial EDI is used to make vendor payments.

Field Warrant Accountability Report - A report listing changes that have occurred over the past six months in an agency’s field warrant stock.

Field Warrant (FW) - A hand-prepared warrant not exceeding $999.99 issued by an agency when immediate payment is required.

Field Warrant Custodian - The agency individual responsible for maintenance and security of physical field warrant stock released to an agency by the Division of Finance.

Finance Journal Entry - Balanced debit and credit entries used by the Division of Finance and authorized agencies to record special adjustments such as period-end accruals or adjusting balances between posting types.

Financial Reporting Structure - A hierarchy consisting of individual entities created to account for and report financial activity detail.

Financial Transaction - Used to record a specific type of financial activity such as the receipt of revenue, payment of an invoice, etc.

Forgery - A warrant claimed by the payee to have been cashed by someone else. To claim a warrant as forged, the payee must submit a signed and notarized Affidavit of Forgery to the issuing agency.

Fully Qualified Account (FQA) - Refers to the financial coding entered in financial transactions. The FQA consists of the mandatory set-up year, collocation code, account code, and federal fiscal year. The FQA also contains the optional program and ledger codes.

Fund - A self-balancing set of accounts used to manage the income and outflow of the state’s resources. Funds are authorized by the legislature to account for particular activities according to the nature of the activity or the source of financing.

Fund Structure - Used to maintain the assets, liabilities, and equities of the state in accordance with state statutes and generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP). All financial activity of the state is accounted for within funds.

General Fixed Assets Account Group - Accounts for the land, buildings and improvements, and machines and equipment of the governmental funds.

General Fund - The operating fund of the state. All public monies and revenues coming into the state treasury, not specifically authorized by statute to be placed in a specific fund, constitute the general fund.

General Warrant (GN) - Warrants issued and printed by AKSAS.

Grant Structure - Agency-assigned entities used to record and report on financial activity on an inception-to-date basis across multiple state fiscal years or by federal fiscal year.


Handwrite Warrant (HW) - A warrant that is hand-prepared by the Division of Finance at agency request when same-day payment is in the best interest of the state.

IEAX - An acronym for Interentity Account Cross-Reference. IEAX is used by AKSAS to keep track of where interentity financial activity should be consolidated in each financial reporting structure.

Inactive Vendor - Vendor records on the VMF with a status of ―I.‖ An inactive vendor must be activated with a change vendor transaction before it can be used as the pay vendor on a warrant request transaction or as a reference on an open item transaction. The warrant or open item transaction can be submitted in the same run as the change vendor transaction since change vendor transactions process first.

Indented Structure - The hierarchical relationships that structural entities have to one another.

Input RD Code - The AKSAS sign-on RD code of the person performing data entry. Generally, the Input RD and the Source RD codes are the same.

Interagency Transfer - A journal entry reflecting the movement of financial resources between agencies.

Internal Service Funds - Accounts for the operations of state agencies that render services to other state agencies, institutions, or other governmental units on a cost-reimbursement basis.

Intra-agency RSA - An RSA within the same two budget entities of the same agency.

Ledger Code - An eight-digit code used for agency-specific accounting and reporting, such as cost accounting and federal reporting. Ledger codes identify the project, contract, and/or grant structure to which financial activity is recorded.

Liability - Obligations of the state presented on the balance sheet such as warrants outstanding and accounts payable.

Liquidation - Reduction of an open item balance, either by releasing a portion or all of the balance, or by charging an expenditure against the balance.

Logical Level - The available summarizing levels for a reporting structure identified by level name and number. Up to 99 levels are available for a structure.

M&IE Allowance - Acronym for Meal & Incidental Expense. This is the authorized daily rate of payment to a traveler to cover the cost of meals and incidentals when accommodations are being paid for or provided by the state.

Management Budget - A user-defined budget that can be recorded for any of the reporting structures to reorganize the authorized budget according to the way an agency manages activities.

Miscellaneous Revenue - Warrant reversal amounts from cancel and stop payment transactions that could not be posted to the original warrant


financial coding. Miscellaneous revenue is recorded by the Division of Finance each month to agency-specific miscellaneous revenue collocation codes and liability account 29990 (Miscellaneous Revenue Suspense). Agencies are responsible for clearing their miscellaneous revenue CC and recording the warrant reversal amounts to the appropriate agency financial coding.

Net Available Balance - The total authorization, net of expenditures-to-date, taking into account required collections of restricted receipts. For appropriations financed by restricted receipts, expenditures are contingent upon collection of the receipts.

Net-Change Rollup - A daily (Monday - Thursday) process of adding that day’s financial activity to the Management Report File (MRF).

Nominal Accounts - The expenditure and revenue accounts used to report the results of operations.

Obligation - An amount the state is legally required to meet out of its resources.

OMB - An acronym for the state Office of Management and Budget, a division within the Office of the Governor.

One-Sided Journal Entry - An agency journal entry used during the reappropriation period to correct a warrant transaction recorded with an incorrect fiscal period code. Two one-sided journal entries are processed - one to reverse the warrant amounts recorded to the incorrect fiscal period code and one to record the warrant to the correct fiscal period code.

Online Forms File (OFF) - A file containing data selected to produce 1099-MISC tax statements. Agencies access this file online to review and correct 1099 data.

Open Item - Accounting record that keeps track of financial activity over time. Expenditure open items include accounts payable, encumbered expenditures, and scheduled payments. Revenue open items include agency and treasury receipts, encumbered revenues, and accounts receivables.

Open Item File (OIF) - File in AKSAS that provides information on all existing open items.

Operating Budget - The estimated costs of carrying out programs, projects, and agency operations.

Organization Structure - Used to maintain the management and reporting hierarchy for each of the state agencies to summarize appropriation activity along organizational lines. Financial activity is recorded to the organization structure through collocation codes.

Original Appropriation - An initial appropriation as authorized by the legislature. Original appropriations are recorded in AKSAS as budget type ―ORG,‖ posting type 05.

Overhead Accounts Table (SOH) - Used in processing 450-xx: Time & Equipment transactions. Identifies overhead rate codes and account numbers.


Oversight Agency - The agency responsible for recording transactions to a fund and for maintaining the correct account balances for the fund.

Passive Financial Line - A term used to refer to the financial lines in an add or change RSA transaction that do not contain financial amounts and/or numerators or IEAX cross-references. Passive financial lines are referenced in the IEAX field of the active financial lines. AKSAS applies the financial amount from the active financial line to the passive financial line. Generally, the revenue financial lines entered by the servicing agency are the passive lines in an RSA transaction. Also see the definitions for IEAX and Active Financial Line.

Password - A five to ten character user-defined word used in combination with the AKSAS sign-on RD code to gain admittance to AKSAS.

Payroll Suspense - Payroll charges passed to AKSAS with invalid financial coding and posted to agency suspense collocation codes. Instead of rejecting payroll charges with erroneous financial coding, AKSAS records the charges to agency-specific payroll suspense collocation codes and expenditure account 71965 (Payroll Exceptions). Agencies are responsible for clearing their payroll suspense CC and recording the payroll charges to the appropriate agency financial coding.

Per Diem Allowance - Authorized daily rate of payment to a traveler to cover the cost of hotel and meals.

Planned Revenue - Amounts billed but not yet collected.

Posting Month - The state fiscal month in which financial activity is recorded.

Prenote – A zero-value EDI transmittal sent to a vendor’s financial institution to test the accuracy of the account information prior to beginning cash payments. It also serves as notice to the financial institution that the account will begin receiving EDI payments.

Prepayment - To pay a contract, lease, or other obligation in advance of receipt of the goods or services. All prepayments must be made in accordance with AAM 35.100 - Prepayments of Charges, Contracts, and Lease Payments.

Procurement Officer - An employee delegated the authority to purchase services or supplies.

Program Structure - Agency-assigned entities used to keep track of financial activity across appropriation and organizational lines. Financial activity is recorded to the organization structure through collocation codes or by entering the program code in the financial line of coding.

Project Structure - Agency-assigned entities used to record and report financial activity on an inception-to-date basis across multiple state fiscal years or by federal fiscal year. Financial activity is recorded in the project structure through ledger codes.

PVN (Pay Vendor Number) - A reference type used in warrant request and open item transactions to identify the payee for warrant and EDI transactions and for 1099 tax reporting. The associated reference number


must be a valid eight-character (three-alpha, five-numeric) vendor number on the Vendor Master File or a temporary vendor number.

RD Code - An RD (responsibility/distribution) code is a five-digit number assigned to an AKSAS user. An RD code is the identifying number used to sign on AKSAS (input RD code) and to identify a user as the source RD code, certifying RD code, or dual authorization RD code for a transaction. RD codes are also used to identify users for report distribution.

Real Accounts - Used to maintain the balances of the assets, liabilities, and equities of the funds of the state.

Receipt - See Revenue.

Records Storage Contractor - The contractor responsible for providing space to store archive boxes containing state records.

Reimbursable Services Agreement (RSA) - A contractual agreement between two state agencies or two budget entities to provide a service for reimbursement.

Remittance Advice - Additional information specified in a general warrant request transaction and printed on the warrant stub.

Reports-to Relationship - Defines the exact location of an entity in a structure by specifying the next higher-level entity through which its activity is summarized or controlled. Also referred to as the ―points to‖ relationship.

Requesting Agency - The agency requesting a service from another agency creating the need for a Reimbursable Services Agreement. The requesting agency generally records the expenditure side of an RSA transaction.

Restricted Revenue - Resources earmarked for specific programs and specifically identified in the appropriations bill as a source of financing for the appropriation.

Returned Payment (EDI) – An EDI transaction that has been returned to the State because the receiving bank could not identify the correct account for the vendor.

Return per ODFI (EDI) – A request made by The Division of Finance through the State’s banking partner (ODFI) to have an erroneous payment returned to the State. This request is made if more than 5 days have passed since the Settlement Day of the original transaction.

Revenue - General cash collections of the state, authorized collections associated with appropriations, and collections from other sources, such as proceeds from the sale of bonds or assets. See Restricted Revenue and Unrestricted Revenue.

Revenue Deferral - To defer a portion of budgeted receipts when revenue estimates are higher than the actual revenue the agency can realize during the fiscal period. Revenue deferrals are offset by an expenditure restriction to ensure planned expenditures do not exceed expected receipts. See Budget Restriction.


Reversed Payment (EDI Reversal) - A transaction processed through the Division of Finance within 5 business days of Settlement Day reversing a previous EDI payment. Reversals may be processed if there was an error resulting in payment to the wrong vendor, duplicate payment, or incorrect amount paid.

Revised Program - A nonlegislative increase or decrease to the original appropriation amount. Revised programs are recorded in AKSAS as budget type ―RPG,‖ posting type 07.

Rollup All - A weekly process of creating a new Management Report File (MRF) with data contained on the Financial Master File (FMF).

RSA - An acronym for Reimbursable Services Agreement.

SAU - Acronym for the System Management File (SMF) Authorized RD Code Transaction Table. The SAU is maintained by the Division of Finance and identifies authorized source RD code and transaction code combinations, authorized certifying RDs, and/or dual authorization RD codes.

Scheduled Payment (SP) - An open item used to record automatic monthly installment payments for equal amounts issued on a preestablished monthly payment date.

Sequence Number - A sequential, four-digit number assigned by AKSAS during data entry to each transaction in a batch.

Servicing Agency - The agency providing a service to another agency according to the terms of a Reimbursable Services Agreement. The servicing agency generally records the revenue side of an RSA transaction.

Settlement Day - The day EDI payments are transferred to vendors’ financial institutions. This is the same as the RECONCILED DATE on the warrant transaction.

Source RD Code - A five-digit AKSAS RD code identified on the System Management File (SMF) Authorized RD Code Transaction Table (SAU) as having authority to record specific transactions in AKSAS.

Source System ID (SSI) - A two-character code used to identify the source of a transaction, i.e., AA (entered online), PA (payroll charges interfaced from AKPAY), etc. Source System ID codes are identified on the SMF Source System ID Table (SSI) maintained by the Division of Finance. Refer to the Appendix for a complete list of two-character SSI codes.

Special Revenue Funds - Accounts for the proceeds of specific revenue sources (other than expendable trusts or major capital projects) that are legally restricted to expenditures for specific purposes.

Staledate – For general warrants issued July 1, 2003 or after, a warrant not redeemed within six months of the date of issue. For general warrants issued prior to July 1, 2003, a warrant not redeemed within two years of the date of issue.

Stop Payment (SP) - To stop payment on an active, unredeemed warrant in AKSAS so the warrant is no longer redeemable. Stop payments are


recorded when a warrant is lost, stolen, or issued in error and the physical warrant is not available.

STR - Acronym for State Transportation Request (Form 02-019). Three-part form used for purchasing transportation on state ferries. This form may also be used for purchasing other types of transportation when the preferred methods cannot be used.

Subaccount - A bank account assigned to an agency by the Department of Revenue, Treasury Division for deposit of agency cash collections.

Supplemental Appropriation - A legislative adjustment to an original appropriation. Supplemental appropriations are recorded in AKSAS as budget type ―SUP,‖ posting type 06.

TA - Acronym for Travel Authorization. The official state Form 02-027, which must be used for approval and payment of travel and moving claims.

Tax Identification Number (TIN) - A nine-digit identifier used for tax reporting purposes. The TIN is either an Employer Identification Number (EIN) or a Social Security Number (SSN) and must be specified on all 1099 reportable vendor records.

Temporary Vendor Number - A vendor number comprised of three alpha characters assigned by the agency and five 9s. A temporary vendor number can be used for one-time payments or for open items when a vendor does not have a vendor number on the VMF. Payments cannot be issued with a temporary vendor number if the payment is 1099 tax reportable.

Time and Equipment - An AKSAS process that calculates direct and indirect costs related to hours worked, equipment usage, and other work units reported on time sheets, and distributes those costs through AKSAS reporting structures according to the financial coding on the time sheet.

Total Control Appropriation - The level at which the spending ceiling authorized by the legislature for an appropriation is applied.

Transaction Code - A five-digit number used to identify transactions in AKSAS. The transaction code is made up of a three-digit major transaction code and a two-digit minor transaction code. Each transaction major/minor code combination is identified on the SMF Transaction Code File (STC) maintained by the Division of Finance. See Transaction Major Code and Transaction Minor Code.

Transaction Major Code - The first three digits of a five-digit transaction code. The major transaction code identifies a group of transactions by type. For example, all add warrant requests use transaction major code 310.

Transaction Minor Code - The last two digits of a five-digit transaction code. The minor transaction code identifies a specific transaction within a transaction group. For example, an add warrant request for a field warrant is 310-56. For some transactions (i.e., add warrant requests, journal entries), the transaction minor code is entered by the user.

Transaction Suspense File (TSF) - A file maintained by AKSAS of all unprocessed or rejected transactions. Users can access transactions on the


TSF through the DM - Maintain Batches and DO - Access Other Batches functions available on the AKSAS Main Menu.

Travel Advance - Payment made to a traveler in advance of a trip to cover estimated costs.

Treasurer’s Pool Funds - Asset balance sheets used to account for and report cash and investment management activities of the state. Treasurer’s Pool Funds are managed by the Department of Revenue, Treasury Division.

Treasury Journal Entry - A balanced debit and credit entry used by the Department of Revenue, Treasury Division to record investment transactions and other fund management activities in Treasury Pool Funds. Also used by agencies to record wire transfers.

Treasury Finance Journal Entry - A balanced debit and credit entry used by the Department of Revenue, Treasury Division to clear agency and treasury receipts and allocate deposits of cash to the appropriate agency funds/appropriations.

Treasury Receipt (TR) - An open item used by the Department of Revenue, Treasury Division to record cash deposits in suspense in Treasury Pool Funds.

Trust and Agency Funds - Accounts for assets held by the state in a trustee capacity or as an agency for individuals, private organizations, or other funds.

Unobligated Balance - The total authorization net of expenditures-to-date and outstanding encumbrances. The unobligated balance is the amount of an appropriation available for expenditures.

Unrestricted Revenue - General receipts of the state used to finance most programs and agency operations.

Vendor Master File (VMF) - AKSAS database file containing active and inactive vendor records. Information in this file is used to issue warrants and for reference and 1099 tax reporting.

Vendor Number - A unique eight-character (three alpha, five numeric) identifier assigned by the Division of Finance to identify vendors of the state on the Vendor Master File. The vendor number is entered in the Reference Number field on the PVN reference line in warrant and open item transactions. See PVN and Temporary Vendor Number.

Warrant - An obligation of the state drawn from a specified financial institution.

Warrant Status File (WSF) - AKSAS file containing detailed payment information of warrants issued by the state.

Wire Transfer - An electronic transfer of state funds from the state’s bank account to the payee’s bank account.


Lectura

Accounting and Administrative

Procedures Manual For Soil and Water

Conservation District and Watershed

Conservancy District Offices In Kentucky

- Kentucky Division of Conservation - 2007

A continuación veremos la aplicación de la terminología y las técnicas de búsqueda en el texto que sigue, que es parte de un Manual de Procedimientos Contables y Administrativos de División de Conservación del Gobierno de Kentucky, Estados Unidos.

Fiscal Year - Each district shall operate on a fiscal year that begins on

July 1 and ends on June 30.

Reviewing banking procedures, deposits, billing and claims for

payment should be done, especially by the treasurer, on a regular basis to

satisfy the board that all are valid. It is suggested that the board rotate a

thorough review process through the supervisors so that each member only

has the job once every few meetings.

Questions to ask for testing that a bill (claim for payment) is valid include:

Do I know the claimant? (To explore the possibility of fictitious vendors on the claims)

If I don’t actually know the claimant, am I at least aware the district is doing business with him/her? (also fictitious claims)

Is there any indication, or is there specific knowledge, that the product or service has been received? (also fictitious claims)

Is the bill arithmetically correct? Do quantities multiplied by unit prices compute correctly? Does the total add up correctly? Never assume that a bill is correct just because it was prepared by a computer.

Does the correct amount of the bill agree with the amount on the list submitted to the board?

In the case of payroll checks, does the gross (overall total minus deductions) amount agree with the authorized pay rate times the hours worked, for the employee?

Is the claim ―certified under penalty of perjury?‖

Was paying of all bills approved at the board meeting and recorded in the minutes?


Other tests for the correctness of paid amounts are to:

Select at random, items from the approved bills list and inspect the canceled checks in the bank statement used to pay them, to make sure the payee and amount agree, and there is no indication of alteration. (Payments are made in accordance with official authorization.)

Select at random canceled checks from the bank statements and find the items they paid on the list of approved bills. (Check for unauthorized disbursements)

Inspect canceled checks for authorized signatures and also for unauthorized disbursements.

Check whether the expenditure is charged to the correct account and fund. (To evaluate the reliability of the cash disbursements journal.)

Tests that may be performed on bank reconciliations include:

Inspect bank statement(s) for any signs of alterations.

Compare ending balance on the bank statement(s) to the one used in reconciliation to make sure the two agree.

Examine reconciliation for any deposits in transit (deposits showing in the receipts journal which do not appear on bank statement) or electronic funds transfers. If there are any, ask responsible staff for an explanation and then make sure they do appear as deposits on the next month’s bank statement.

Review list of outstanding checks.

Determine the nature, explanation and appropriateness of any other reconciling items.

Make sure that each item on the statement has supporting documents (cancelled checks, other charges, credits or deposits). This is a test for unauthorized disbursements or transfers to another account.

Reconciled balance of a bank account should agree with the balance in the general ledger and if it doesn’t, the error must be located and corrected.

Remember: The budget is the district’s legal authorization to

expend funds; thus, one way to disguise unauthorized

expenditures could be to charge them to accounts with

budget surpluses. Expenditures should regularly be

compared with budgeted amounts.


Accounting Software Programs - All the districts in the commonwealth are to use approved, up-to-date software, some newer version of QuickBooks or Quicken, for bookkeeping purposes. For payroll, some districts have an outside accountant do them, use QuickBooks payroll, Quicken payroll, or keep them in an EXCEL format ledger and transfer the summaries to the accounting software with the proper account/category number. This ensures that payroll items will show on reports generated by the software.

Audits - Audits are mandated by KRS 65.065 to be conducted for special districts every four years, unless revenues or expenditures are $750,000 or more in a fiscal year. When revenues or expenditures are $750,000 or more, an audit is required for that year. This is state law!

In preparation for an audit, the district should have available for auditors the following for the fiscal year to be audited:

Annual financial report*

Previous year’s financial report*

Bank statements for June 30 for the previous year and year to be audited*

June 30 bank reconciliation for previous year and year to be audited*

Cash receipts journal or ledger from Quicken/QuickBooks

Cash disbursements journal or ledger from Quicken/QuickBooks

General ledger from Quicken/QuickBooks

Time and attendance forms

Payroll returns, 941, K-1

Original and final revised budgets

Minutes of Board Meetings

Annual work plan

AAccttiioonnss CCoonnssttiittuuttiinngg FFrraauudd

1. Any dishonest or fraudulent act. 2. Forgery or alteration of any document or account belonging to the county conservation district. 3. Forgery or alteration of a check, bank draft, or any other financial document. 4. Misappropriation of funds, securities, supplies, equipment, or other assets of the county conservation district. 5. Impropriety in the handling or reporting of money or financial transactions. 6. Disclosing confidential and proprietary information to outside parties. 7. Accepting or seeking anything of material value from contractors, vendors, or persons providing goods or services to the conservation district. Exception: gifts less than a nominal value ($25 or less each year). 8. Destruction, removal or inappropriate use of records, furniture, fixtures, and equipment. 9. Any similar or related irregularity.


Annual report

Long-range work plan

Contracts and grant documents

Lease and rental agreements

Schedule of fixed assets as of the end of fiscal year

Certificates of deposit

Collateral agreement

Last audit report*

Published legal notice

Insurance and bond policies

Fiscal year cancelled checks

Fiscal year invoices, paid or unpaid

*For items marked with an asterisk, provide auditors with a copy. For all other items, make available for auditors to review.

Assets – Assets are probable future economic benefits obtained or controlled by the district as a result of past transactions or events. These can be cash, banking accounts, money market accounts, certificates of deposit, land, buildings, outbuildings, equipment, money owed to the district, or inventory of goods purchased to resell. Assets of the district are classified as current assets, fixed assets, and other assets and once acquired should be properly recorded on a schedule and kept on file at the conservation district office. The list must be maintained and updated regularly with the information below about each:

Date of acquisition

Method of acquisition

Name and address of vendor

Abbreviated description and location of asset

Cost

Fund and account/category from which purchased

Estimated life

Date, method, and authorization of disposition of asset. All assets should be periodically inventoried and the list maintained and updated regularly, preferably every year.

Current assets are assets that are available or can be made readily available to meet the cost of operations or to pay current liabilities. Some examples are:

Cash, including cash on hand, petty cash, and money in the bank

Temporary investments like certificates of deposit or money markets

Money owed to the district - receivables that will be collected within one year of the statement of financial position date

Inventory – goods purchased to resell, such as filter fabric, mulch netting, etc.


Fixed assets are tangible assets with a useful life of more than one year that are acquired for use in the operation of the district and are not held for resale. Examples are classifications of:

Land – Including cost of land, costs incidental to acquisition of that land, expenses incurred in preparing the land for use.

Buildings – Including relatively permanent structures used to house persons or property and fixtures which are permanently attached to and made a part of buildings and which cannot be removed without cutting into walls, ceilings, or floors or without in some way damaging the building.

Infrastructure – The plant and assets required for maintaining a district office presence. Plants and assets are long-term fixed and variable assets that are used to run a business and are not for re-sale to a customer. They normally include buildings, IT networks, telephones, other items that are in an office, or other structures, appurtenants, real estate, regardless of whether it is attached and any other obligations that are used to obtain those assets.

Machinery and equipment with a cost over $500 – Items such as trucks, automobiles, pumps, rental equipment, desks, computers, printers, copiers and bookcases, etc. These types of items should be marked with ID numbers and so noted in the permanent records.

Construction work in progress – Costs of incomplete construction work undertaken but incomplete at a balance sheet date. These should be reclassified upon completion.

Contra-assets are accounts that reduce asset accounts, such as accumulated depreciation.

Other assets include long-term assets that are assets acquired without the intention of disposing of them in the near future. Some examples are security deposits, property and long-term investments.

Standardization – It is very important for every district to follow the same general procedures in their accounting process because:

There are established standards for accounting and bookkeeping, and auditors have recommended these standards be followed for sound, secure, accountable and lawful use of public funds since soil and water conservation districts are subdivisions of state government.

The Kentucky Soil and Water Commission has mandated that all districts will follow the same general procedures. (KRS 262)

Terms – Terms commonly used include those listed in Appendix C –Terms, page 64.

Liabilities – Probable financial obligations arising from present obligations of the district to transfer assets or provide services to other entities in the future as a result of past transactions or events. Liabilities of the district are classified as current or long-term.

Current liabilities are probable sacrifices, or losses, of economic benefits that will likely occur within one year of the date of the financial statements


or which have a due date of one year or less. Common examples of current liabilities include accounts payable, accrued liabilities, short-term notes payable, and deferred revenue.

Long-term liabilities are probable sacrifices of economic benefits that will likely occur more than one year from the date of the financial statements. An example is the non-current portion of a mortgage loan.

Net Assets – The difference between total assets and total liabilities.

Revenues/Receipts – The inflows or other enhancements of assets, or settlements of liabilities, from delivering or producing goods, rendering services, or other activities that constitute a district’s ongoing major operations. Revenues may come in the form of cash, checks or electronic funds transfer (EFT) and all (including interest earned on every bank account, savings account, certificate of deposit, money market, etc.) should be entered into the computer accounting software (QuickBooks or Quicken) as income.

Revenues of the district should be categorized into the following income accounts or categories with the proper account number from the Chart of Accounts, page 47:

Fiscal Court funds

Federal funds

State funds

County funds

Other government funds

District equipment (district purchased with district funds)

Reimbursements/Refunds/Contributions

Interest income

Other income

From these main accounts/categories, they should be broken down into subaccounts/subcategories. Refer to the Appendix A - Chart of Accounts, page 47, for accounts/categories and subaccounts/subcategories.

Expenditures – Outgoing money to pay for the expenses the district incurs or programs the district participates in.

All expenses are to be recorded under proper accounts/categories, subaccounts/subcategories and sub-subaccounts/sub-subcategories (Refer to the Appendix A - Chart of Accounts, page 47, for appropriate numbers).

All checks submitted for signature(s) should be accompanied by supporting documentation as proof (a bill or invoice) to back up the expense and:

Approval in the form of district meeting minutes or budget that the money may be spent on the particular purchase.

The proper signatories on the check

Proper recording of the expenditure into the accounting software and entry (in detail) on the check stub.


Enough money in the bank.

Keep the back-up documentation and paid bills on file for 2 years.

Check stubs should be kept for 7 years. When paying an invoice or bill:

Mark on the bill “PAID.” This will help avoid paying a bill twice as well as providing additional tracking.

Write the check number and date on the bill for more accuracy and ease in tracking.

Attach backup documentation to the invoice.

Gains – Increases in net assets from peripheral or incidental transactions and from all other transactions and other events and circumstances affecting the district except those that result from revenues.

Losses – Decreases in net assets from peripheral or incidental transactions and from all other transactions and other events and circumstances affecting the district except those that result from expenses.

Gains or losses occur when the district sells a fixed asset or writes off as worthless a fixed asset with remaining book value, such as a piece of equipment with no use.

General Ledger – A group of accounts (QuickBooks) or categories (Quicken) with transactions that support the information shown in the major financial statements. The general ledger is used to accumulate all financial transactions of the district, and is supported by additional documentation that provides details for certain accounts in the general ledger, the foundation for the accumulation of data and reports. Note: These are NOT the bank accounts the district uses; they are the accounts or categories used by the accounting software to categorize transactions.

Chart of Accounts/Categories – See Appendix A, page 47, for a complete listing of the Chart of Accounts. This is the framework for the general ledger system, and therefore the basis for the district’s accounting system. General ledger accounts are used to accumulate transactions and the impact of these transactions on each asset, liability, net asset, revenue, expense and gain and loss account, and ultimately the budget.

Chart of Accounts/Categories offers:

Understandability with a clear trail which is made from the initial transaction to the ledgers. When others (auditors, board of supervisors, field representatives, etc.) review the books, there is consistency and a clear audit trail.

Completeness – No transaction is ever to be omitted. EVERY TRANSACTION in EVERY BANK ACCOUNT and EVERY CASH TRANSACTION should be entered into the accounting software and REPORTED.

Timeliness – Since transactions occur daily, prompt daily entry is a necessity to keep books accurate.


Standardization – The system of accounting should be the same in every district in the commonwealth.

How the chart of accounts functions:

Each transaction is first designated as:

o Revenue or Receipt signified by the letter R

o Expenditure or Expense signified by the letter E

Next, the main account/category is determined

Each transaction made is assigned an account (QuickBooks) or category (Quicken).

Example: (Landowner Incentive Payment) LIP money received goes under:

Main heading R20000 Federal Funds

Sub account/subcategory R20400 Grant Funds

Sub account/subcategory R20403 Landowner Incentive Payment (LIP) R21410 Funds for Landowner

R21412 Administrative Allowance.

The software general ledger would look like this:

Num Payee Memo Payment Deposit

4/1/2006 DEP DOC/DFW LIP $750.00

Account/Category

R20000 Federal Funds; R20400 Grant Funds; R20403

LIP; R21410 Funds for Landowner

R20000 Federal Funds; R20400 Grant Funds; R20403

LIP; R21410 Administrative Allowance

Make sure to refer to the most recent Chart of Accounts, page 47 when entering transactions into your financial software to make sure they are placed in the correct accounts/categories and subaccounts/subcategories to get the greatest amount of detail in reporting. The detail of the checkbook ledger will make work easier when planning the budget, doing annual financial reports and preparing for audits.

Distribution of the chart of accounts is from the Division of Conservation in Frankfort. As the chart has accounts/categories added, an updated copy of the chart of accounts will be distributed to the districts. This chart is monitored and controlled by the Division of Conservation. Any additions or deletions of accounts/categories should be done by Division office personnel in order to keep financial accounting in all districts in the


Commonwealth consistent.

Petty Cash - Petty cash is properly documented (with a ―paper trail‖) when:

A check is written from the general account to petty cash to deposit money into the petty cash fund.

In QuickBooks/Quicken this may done with the transfer process.

A ledger is kept on all outgoing money and deposits.

NO checks or cash from incoming receipts should ever be entered directly into the petty cash fund.

Paychecks or personal checks are NEVER to be cashed out of petty cash.

All receipts from money used out of the petty cash are to be kept and reconciled monthly, just like a bank account by someone other than the custodian of petty cash.

Petty cash should have a limit as to the maximum amount of individual disbursement.

Petty cash account should have a maximum amount to be transferred. It is suggested that a petty cash account/category never have more than $100-$200, depending on how it is to be used.

Credit Cards – Credit card debt should be paid in full monthly and on time to avoid any interest or late fees.

Any credit card(s) should be locked up any time not in use.

Credit card(s) should only be used by those authorized by the board as specified in the board meeting minutes.

All receipts should be promptly turned in by the user so that the bill and receipts can be reconciled each month. This will verify that there are no mistakes by the credit card company and that there is no misuse of the card(s).

There should be a credit card account in the accounting software and all expenses, including any interest paid should be recorded.

Credit card bills should be paid off monthly so as not to incur any interest charges.

Note: If your district needs additional accounts/categories

or an updated Chart of Accounts, please contact the Division

office in Frankfort, 502-573-3080, for assistance. Do not

add or change any of the accounts/categories.


The treasurer should also review the credit card statement monthly, by:

Checking the billing period for the statement

Matching all receipts to charges and make sure the receipts and charges on the credit card match

If something is irregular, research the problem. If no cause can be determined, call the credit card company as soon as possible to trace the problem.

The credit card(s) should NEVER be taken home with an employee overnight or on the weekend, unless needed for district activities.

Someone from the district should know at all times where any district credit card is and who has possession of the credit card(s).

Cash Receipts – Cash, including checks payable to the organization and electronic transfers, is the most liquid asset an organization has. Therefore, the objective of the district is to establish and follow the strongest possible internal controls in this area of their finances. Receipts create a trail from the transaction origination to whom or what entity the money is paid, when and which individual received it. After a receipt is recorded and issued, the cash should be locked up until deposited into the bank.

Processing of Checks and Cash Received in the Office or by Mail – For funds that are received directly at the district office, cash receipts must be issued, and recorded on a receipt in the computer software to ensure that cash received is appropriately recorded, locked up at all times while still in the office and then deposited on a timely basis, daily, if at all possible.

All blank checks must be locked up at all times.

When mail is opened, the administrative personnel assigned to this duty should make copies of received checks in the presence of other employees (if there are other employees).

All checks should immediately be stamped with a restrictive endorsement that includes: a) For Deposit Only, b) bank name and c) bank account number of the district.

On the receipt the following items should be filled in with:

Date Amount Who paid the money--Payer What the money was paid for Cash or check—if check, add the check number Who received the money--Payee If paid on an open account, put amount before the receipt, amount received on debt and then new balance. Once specific funds are deposited, make a note on the receipt copy of when the money was deposited and into which account/category deposited.

When funds are deposited, make an entry into the ledger of the appropriate account. A deposit can have individual transactions for each


receipt or split deposits. If the district is using QuickBooks Pro Accounting software, sales receipts can be completed in the software.

Deposits - A deposit slip should be prepared with the first receipt of funds each day and each cash receipt should be added to the deposit slip throughout the day so the funds may be deposited on a daily basis. This function may be performed in the accounting software as part of a ―blue deposit bag‖ and then printed out to use with or as a deposit slip. This is a strong recommendation from the auditors and a major part of internal control.

Make sure the cash and checks are deposited to the proper bank accounts.

Do not hold large checks, such as Millage tax checks. Deposit them immediately.

Do not hold producer checks for a long period of time. Cash deposits of all funds should be made daily.

When completing deposit slips, include the following:

Bank account number Name of person who paid the money and check number (With cash deposits, you may need to refer back to the receipts, and that is one reason to place the deposit date on every receipt.)

Record deposits, including electronic funds transfers (EFTs), into the accounting software. The following should be recorded about each deposit:

Received from If check, check number Proper account/category from chart of accounts (why received) Amount Date deposited into the bank

Check Signing Authority – By definition this is the person(s) who has legal authority and is on record at the bank to sign checks. The district board should make the initial decision for the person(s) who should sign checks and document in the minutes of a board meeting.

Ideally, anyone with check signing authority should not have access to:

Accounting records and entries Cash receipts Petty cash funds

TTrraannssffeerrss – A transfer of money between bank accounts or between

accounts/categories is NNOOTT ―Revenue‖ or ―Expense‖ and should not be

recorded or reported as such!!! QuickBooks and Quicken software

have a transfer recording function. This function should be used to

record a transfer of funds between banks, bank accounts, or

accounts/categories.


There should be at least two board members with check signing authority. When a check needs to be signed and one is not available, the other authorized board member can sign. A current list of authorized check signers at the bank(s) should always be available and up-to-date. Normally the treasurer is the main authorized check signer and another board member should be named as back up. This could be rotated through the board members. Ideally, the secretary should not be the signer of checks. This is a commonly reported audit problem with the potential for misappropriation of funds or the appearance of misappropriation. Blank checks should not be signed in advance. Anyone having access to district accounts shall be bonded. Bonding is an insurance policy that protects employers against employee misappropriation of funds or theft. According to KRS 65.067, all officials who handle public funds are to be bonded for an amount covering the maximum amount that they will have under their control at any one time. Those who need to be bonded: administrative secretary, treasurer and the back-up check signer. Elected officials who post bond and employees covered under a blanket policy (e.g. Kentucky Association of Counties (KACo) are in compliance with KRS 65.067. A collateral security agreement is necessary if the district ever has more than $100,000 in one bank at any one time because the bank is only insured for accounts up to $100,000 by the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC). Blank checks should be properly controlled by keeping them under lock and key when not in use. The sequence of checks should be accounted for when doing bank reconciliations to make sure no checks are missing or stolen. Voided checks and cancelled checks should be properly marked and kept for 7 years. Have stamps printed or stamped with the wording of “VOID AFTER 90 DAYS.” Any check outstanding for 90 days Should be investigated by calling the payee and reminding them of the check to determine what the intentions are. If the check is lost or payment of the check stopped, then the amount should be restored into the same account/category in the ledger in the accounting software.

Bank Statement and Checks Reconciliation – These must be reconciled promptly every month. This allows for the quick finding of any errors or irregularities that can be tracked more easily sooner rather than later. A good method for reconciling is to:

In the checkbook,

Add to the balance Interest earned Deposits not recorded Automatic credits not previously recorded. Subtract from the bank balance Service charges Checks not recorded


Payments not recorded

Mark off All checks paid against statement Amount of all deposits shown on statement

List and total All deposits made but not shown All checks written and not shown on previous or current statements.

To get the balance Enter bank statement balance. Add to the balance all and other credits not shown on previous or current statements. Subtract all outstanding checks or payments.

Once these steps are completed, the total on the bank statement should agree with the district checkbook balance.

If not in balance:

Check addition and subtraction. Check amounts recorded in district checkbook against amounts recorded on the bank statement. Look for outstanding checks (not cashed by the payee) from previous statements. Check the amount the balance is off and see if it matches any deposit or check amount. Make sure a deposit or check was not added in the subtraction process or subtracted in any addition process.

Once bank reconciliation is completed and in balance, the treasurer should review and sign the bank reconciliation.

Procurement – Purchases must fall into some aspect of the yearly budget and all purchases should be regularly compared with budgeted amounts.

The district’s objective in purchasing should be to purchase the best products, materials and services at the lowest cost.

The board should approve all purchases and document in the minutes.

Tax exemption should be used on all purchases.

Districts need to make efforts to use the bidding process for necessary services and products above a certain amount (set by the board). This will allow for possible discounts.

NOTE: The reconciliation process should be done in the software program the district is using, either QuickBooks or Quicken.


It is suggested that districts get at least 3 bids for any purchase at the set amount of $20,000.00 or more. (Note: This does NOT include Revolving Fund Equipment!)

Bids are not necessary for:

Supplies, unless above the set amount Materials, unless above the set amount When services are a monopoly such as electricity, water, phone service.

Bids should be properly advertised with:

Description in general terms such as materials, supplies or services to be purchased.

Time of opening of sealed bids.

Award to the lowest responsible bidder with letters to award contracts and letters of notification to those not receiving a contract.

Bids should not be awarded to companies or individuals where a conflict of interest could arise, including family of district board members of district employees. Districts should avoid any appearance of favoritism in the process of bidding, either by supervisors or staff.

Procurement is the theme behind the cost of materials and goods the district purchases, whether for resale or for use by the district, and should be “the best product for the least amount of money.” These costs must be tracked to provide the basis for ongoing planning and program funding needed in the future. For all government programs, excluding Equipment Loan Program purchases, the costs as well as the revenues must be tracked and reported.

KRS 45A.345-385 - An act relating to contracts and purchases by local governments (special districts-which include conservation districts and watershed conservancy districts) has the following requirements:

For Procurement Purchases:

0 - $ 500.00 Go and Buy It

$ 500 - $ 1000.00 3 Bids or Quotes

Over - $ 1000.00 Public Bid

For Construction or Maintenance of Construction:

0 - $3,000.00 Only Get One Bid

$3,000 - $10,000.00 3 Bids or Quotes

Over - $10,000.00 Public Bid


KRS 45A.365

All contracts or purchases shall be awarded by competitive sealed bidding, except as otherwise provided by KRS 45A.370-385

The invitation for bids shall state whether the award shall be made on the basis of the lowest bid price or the lowest evaluated bid price.

The public shall be given notice of the invitation for bids for advertisement in the newspaper of largest circulation in the local jurisdiction at least once not less than seven (7) days nor more than twenty-one (21) days before the date set for the opening of the bids. The advertisement shall include the time and place where the bids will be opened and the time and place where the specifications may be obtained.

The bids shall be opened publicly at the time and place designated in the invitation for bids. Each bid, together with the name of the bidder, shall be recorded and be open to public inspection.

A contract shall be awarded with reasonable promptness by written notice to the responsive and responsible bidder whose bid is the lowest bid price or the lowest evaluated bid price.

The local public agency may allow the withdrawal of a bid where there is a patent error on the face of the bid document, or where the bidder presents sufficient evidence, substantiated by bid worksheets, that the bid was based upon an error in the formulation of the bid price.

Each conservation district and watershed conservancy district will need to decide the purchasing limits set for district employees and for certain purchases. Also, each conservation district will need to decide how and when purchases are to be made.

Certain items within the budget may or may not be purchased with prior approval of the board. Certain items may or may not need to have quotes or bids before purchased.

When conservation districts and watershed conservancy districts are setting limits on check writing, it should be remembered that any check written for an amount over $299.99, and spent inappropriately is considered a felony. It includes any funds stolen from the district and from the citizens of the county and state.

Inventory – Districts may have items kept for resale and the inventory of these should be kept up to date. Some examples of items kept for resale include:

Filter fabric

Seed

Mulch netting

Flags

Erosion control blankets

Inventory can be updated daily with the financial software as products are sold by keeping track of the following:

Amount held before sale


Amount sold

Amount left at end of a sale.

As an example, filter fabric is sold by the foot, so that is the way it would be recorded. The following would need to be included:

Date beginning amount purchased

Amount purchased initially

Amount of current sale

Daily inventory should include name of person buying, date sold, amount sold, sales price and amount remaining.

With this information, proper reconciliation of deposits and receipts can be performed and amounts on hand can be controlled. Each type of product should be kept separate in the accounting software inventory.

Accounts Payable and Cash Disbursements – When invoices or bills are paid, the following information should be noted:

Statements are usually a listing of invoices; therefore, owed money should be paid from an invoice if there is one, not a statement, with the invoice for backup. If a statement is used, the possibility for double payment exists. An exception might be utility bills or others when there is not an invoice or bill sent, only a statement.

There should be on the invoice a detailed list of goods and/or services that were provided.

There should be a list of all costs or an itemized bill.

Invoices should be received as soon as product is purchased if payment is not made at time of pick-up, delivery, or when services are complete.

Special attention should be paid to invoices as soon as they are received:

Date stamp each invoice when it is received.

Check to make sure all items listed on the invoice are received. Do an inventory when products are received for verification.

Check for discounts. Some companies offer discounts if paid by a certain time.

At the time an invoice is paid, mark it as PAID with the check number and the date payment is made on the invoice for quick reference.

The invoice should be retained in the proper file for at least 2 years after payment.

Tax Collection – Some districts collect sales tax on items sold, if the buyer or item is not tax exempt. Keep good records on the amount collected so the appropriate agency may be paid at the appropriate time.

Recordkeeping – Good records are a must to:


Effectively carry out programs

Document previous actions and policies

Secure legal and financial rights of districts

Protect the rights of citizens directly or indirectly affected by the actions of the district

Record the history and intent of public policy

Respond to any Open Records Request

There is a special responsibility under Kentucky statutes for employees of the conservation district to see that information created in the course of daily business, public records, (whatever format-paper, electronic, or other) as defined by statute, is maintained, organized and available for use. This is emphasized in the language of the state’s Open Records Act (KRS 61.870), and that of the state Archives and Records Act (KRS 171.740). The intent is ―…to ensure efficient administration of government and to provide accountability of government activities, public agencies are required to manage and maintain their records according to the requirements of these statutes.‖

Public records are recorded information (in paper, electronic and other format) created or received by the conservation district board of supervisors and employees that document a transaction or activity by or with any public official or employee of that agency. As defined by KRS 171.410, public records are ―all books, papers, maps, photographs, cards, tapes, disks, diskettes, recordings and other documentary materials, regardless of physical form or characteristics, which are prepared, owned, used, in the possession of, or retained by a public agency.‖

Records Management is the systematic control of recorded information, regardless of format, from the time a record is created until its ultimate disposition. The system’s goal is to provide the right information to the right person, at the right time, at the lowest possible cost. Records management planning and schedules are essential for several reasons:

To help the district legally decide which records to keep and which to destroy

To help the district evaluate documentation of its functions, policies, decisions, procedures and essential transactions

To permit the identification and proper control of records’ continuing value.

To give a district the economy and efficiency it needs to operate effectively

To be able to locate the proper records in case needed for any purpose.

A records retention schedule is essential for management of the many records generated by a district.

There should be no more than three fiscal years of information in a district’s regular filing system. The rest should be archived either in protective boxes or filing cabinets, and a specific time of each year should be set aside to archive and update the filing system.

Chairman of the Board of Supervisors for each district, by the terms of KRS 171.680, should establish and maintain an active, continuing program for the economical, efficient management of the district records. It is recommended that the chair’s program should include:


Effective control over the creation, maintenance, use and disclosure of records in the conduct of current business,

Cooperation with Kentucky Division of Conservation and field representative working with your area in applying standards, procedures, and techniques designed to improve the management of records,

Promotion of the maintenance and security of records considered appropriate for preservation and facilitation of the segregation and disposal of records of temporary value,

Following the provisions of the Commonwealth’s public records management statutes, KRS 171.410-171.740 and the rules and regulation of the Division of Conservation and your local district and

Quick response to every Open Records Request as set forth in statute.

Forms – There are forms that a district must use for most of the various activities and reporting in each district. Most of those forms are listed in Appendix B and samples are available either in Appendix B or on Forms Library page of the Division of Conservation Web site. If you need a form that is not on the Forms Library page, contact your field representative or the Division of Conservation office.

Annual Report – An annual report should highlight the goals (from the annual work plan filed) and accomplishments of the district for the past fiscal year. The summary financial statement may be included with the report; however, this will not meet the KRS statute for printing the legal notice.

This is an excellent way for a district to ―brag‖ on themselves for the things accomplished during the year. Conservation districts are a ―well-kept secret‖ and should let people in their county know the good things that are going on.

A conservation district’s annual report can be published:

In the local newspaper In a district newsletter In a district brochure

Or, a district may just do a written report and forward copies to the appropriate parties.

Information and photos for the annual report are collected throughout the fiscal year.

At the end of the fiscal year the information is compiled.

From the end of the fiscal year (June 30) the conservation district has 60 days to complete the annual report and send it to the appropriate parties.

The annual report is then sent to the following:

Kentucky Division of Conservation Local county fiscal court(s) Division of Conservation field representative for your district


Anyone else the district feels should receive it, such as landowners, schools, other districts, etc.)

Annual Budget – The governing body of each district shall annually prepare a budget after the work plan is completed. A budget is required, essential and should be sufficient to carry out the Annual Plan of Work and:

Should be developed in conjunction with development of the annual plan of work,

NO FILING, NO SPENDING until the budget is filed with Fiscal Court

Is required to justify requests for funding to the Kentucky Soil and Water Conservation Commission and to Fiscal Court,

To be prepared by the district board with the assistance of the Kentucky Division of Conservation Field Representative,

A copy should be submitted to the Division of Conservation.

A budget form is available in Appendix B - Forms, on the Division of Conservation Web site or on Government Office of Local Development, GOLD, Web site.

If a budget must be amended, follow the same format but show original and amended amounts and send copies to the local fiscal court(s) and Division of Conservation.

Annual Financial Report – This report for each district is to be completed by the field representative (assigned to each district) at the end of each fiscal year and is due to the Division of Conservation office by September 1. The field representative is to prepare this report from financial data from the bookkeeping files of the district, bank statements and other data required and furnished by district personnel. This is a helpful tool in monitoring bookkeeping practices, efficiency and correctness. There is a sample form in Appendix B – Forms, page 62.

Summary Financial Statement – A sample form for this statement is available in Appendix B – Forms. This statement may be used as an annual report prepared by the district personnel or legal notice to be published instead of a more detailed financial report required by fiscal courts, GOLD and Division of Conservation.

Payroll – Records may be kept in QuickBooks, Quicken, a ledger, an Excel ledger, or by an accounting firm hired by the district. However, the summaries of payroll records must be entered into the software program in order for district reports and records to be complete.

Payroll taxes must be paid with the appropriate form and on time.

Módulo 4

Unidad 4

Lectura 4: Familias de

Palabras, Uso del Diccionario y

Armado de Glosarios




En los módulos anteriores planteábamos la necesidad de entender las ideas generales de lo que leemos. También hablamos de deducir significados a partir de contextos. No obstante, también tenemos la necesidad de identificar y entender palabras específicas y para ello, recurriremos a los diccionarios.

En primer lugar, tenemos los diccionarios bilingües que son de utilidad para quienes no saben inglés. Para quienes tienen conocimientos de inglés y desean acrecentar su vocabulario, están los diccionarios monolingües (e.g., inglés-inglés). Cuando hablamos de diccionarios, nos referimos tanto a los impresos como a los virtuales.

Antes de analizar la forma en que debemos usarlos, citaremos los nombres de algunos buenos diccionarios monolingües, bilingües y links:

Familias de Palabras

Las palabras se forman por la unión de monemas

El monema es la unidad mínima de la lengua con significado

Los monemas pueden ser de diferentes tipos:

Lexemas: Aportan el contenido absoluto de la palabra.

Morfemas: Aportan el contenido relativo a la palabra. Los morfemas pueden ser de tipos diferentes:

Morfemas desinenciales: Son los que aportan:

Género

Número

Accidente verbal Morfemas derivativos: Son los que sirven para formar nuevas palabras a partir de un mismo lexema.

Dependiendo de dónde aparezcan reciben nombres diferentes:

Prefijos - si aparecen delante del lexema

Sufijos - si aparecen detrás del lexema

Interfijos - si aparecen entre el lexema y el sufijo Las palabras se dan en familias. Una familia de palabras o familia léxica está formada por palabras que comparten el mismo lexema o raíz y que, por lo tanto, tienen cierta relación de significado.

Observando por ejemplo, gloria, glorioso, glorificar y glorificación (en inglés: glory, glorious, glorify, glorification) podemos darnos cuenta a simple vista que estas palabras, de algún modo, deben estar relacionadas.

Si conocemos uno de los miembros de la familia, será fácil entender el significado de los otros.

Para crear una familia de palabras hay que añadir al lexema o raíz todos los morfemas que pueda admitir, ya sean prefijos o sufijos.


Veamos algunos ejemplos prácticos:

Verbo Sustantivo (persona) Sustantivo (actividad)

manage manager management

buy

accounting /

accountancy

trainer / trainee

employment

consume

Como lo muestra el primer ejemplo, si al verbo manage le agregamos r, formamos el nombre del profesional que ejerce es trabajo, es decir manager. Si a manage le agregamos ment, tendremos el nombre de la actividad: management.

Probemos con buy, si queremos hablar del profesional que lo ejerce, agregamos er y formamos buyer (comprador, el que compra). Si a buy le agregamos ing obtendremos buying, que es la actividad.

En el caso de accounting / accountancy, ¿cuál es la raíz de esta palabra? Correcto! Es account. ¿Qué hicimos? Le quitamos los prefijos ing / ancy. Y ¿si queremos saber cómo se describe la palabra que define a quien ejerce la contaduría? A account le agregamos ant, y tenemos accountant, contador / contadora.

Sabemos que trainer es entrenador o capacitador y que trainee es el aprendiz, la persona que está recibiendo capacitación en una empresa. ¿Cuál es el lexema base? Train y es, a su vez, el verbo (entrenar). Ahora, ¿qué le agregamos para que forme la actividad? ¡Eso es! ing y tenemos training para hablar de la capacitación!

Si tenemos la actividad employment, ¿cuál es el lexema o raíz? Así es, es employ y ¿cómo formamos el nombre de la persona que lo ejerce? ¡Correcto! employer (empleador) o employee (empleado).

Ahora bien, veamos la palabra consume (consumir), ahora tenemos que ver cuál sufijo agregaremos para expresar la palabra consumidor. El adecuado es er, es decir, consumer. Y la actividad es consumption.

El Sufijo

El sufijo es la terminación que forma palabras derivadas. Al observar los ejemplos anteriores, los sufijos son letras que se colocan al final de una palabra. Por sí solos no tienen significado: er, ing, ancy, ant, ee, tion, entre otros.


El Prefijo

Prefijo significa colocar delante, por ende, un prefijo es la partícula que va antepuesta a un lexema.

co-borrower cosigner divestiture disbursement inactive insufficient overdraft pre-approved reimbursable subaccount unobligated unrestricted

Estas partículas (los prefijos y los sufijos), llamadas afijos cambian el significado o dan un nuevo sentido a la palabra a la que van agregados.

A continuación, encontrará las tablas de lexemas o raíces, prefijos y sufijos.

ROOTS

ROOT MEANING WORD

alter otro alternate, alter ego

ami, amic- amor amiable, amicable

amphi ambos, de ambos tipos amphibian

ann, enni año anniversary, annual,

biennial, perennial

anthrop humano, hombre anthropology,

anthropomorphic,

misanthrope

aqua, aque agua aquatic, aquarium,

aqueduct

arch jefe,líder archangel, monarch,

archaic, archenemy

arthro articulación Arthritis

aud sonido auditorium, audible,


audiologist, audiotape

bell guerra belligerent, bellicose

biblio libro bibliography, bibliophile

bio- vida biography,

autobiography, biology,

antibiotic

brev corto brief, abbreviate

cap tomar, atrapar capture, captivate,

capacity

carn carne carnivorous

ced dar paso, dar lugar recede, secede, proceed,

intercede, concession

chrom- color chromatic,

monochrome,

polychrome

chron- tiempo chronicle, chronology,

chronometer,

synchronize

cogn saber recognize, cognitive,

incognito

cord/chord cuerda, acorde harpsichord

corp cuerpo corpus, corpse, corporal

ROOT MEANING WORD

crac, crat gobierno autocrat, democracy,

bureaucrat, democracy

cred creer credible, credulous,

credibility, credit, credo

cruc cruz crucifix, crucial


crusta caparazón crustacean

crypt oculto cryptogram, cryptology,

cryptic

culp culpabilidad culpable, culprit

dei dios deity, deify

demo- personas demography, democracy

dent diente dentist, dentifrice,

dentin

derm- piel dermatology, epidermis,

hypodermic

dic hablar, decir dictate, predict, diction,

indict

dox creencia, opinión orthodoxy, paradox,

heterodoxy

duc, duct conducir, guiar induce, deduce,

seduction, conduct,

abduct

duo dos duo

dynam- potencia dynamo, hydrodynamics

ego ego egotist, egomania

equ igual equal, equity,

equanimity, equate,

equidistant

fac hacer, fabricar manufacture, factory,

benefactor

fil hilo filament

frater hermano fraternal, fraternize

gam- matrimonio monogamy, polygamy,

bigamy


ROOT MEANING WORD

geo- tierra geopolitical, geology,

geography,

geothermal

glyph talla, grabado hieroglyphs—

Egyptian hieroglyphs

grad, gress paso gradual, progression,

transgression

graph- escritura, impresión graphology,

biography, telegraph,

geography

gym desnudo, ejercitar gymnasium

gyn- relacionado con la mujer gynecologist,

androgynous

hemo, hema,

hem

sangre hemophilia,

hematology,

hemoglobin

holo entero, completo holograph

hydro, hydr agua dehydrate, hydraulics,

hydroelectric,

hydroplane

iso igual, idéntico isolate

ject arrojar, tirar inject, reject, subject,

projection

jud juzgar judicial, judge,

adjudicate

leg, lect leer, elegir legible, lectern,

lecturer, election

liter letra literature, illiterate,

literal

loc lugar local, location

log palabra monologue, epilogue

luc luz lucid, elucidate


magn grande magnify, magnate,

magnificent

man a mano manufacture, manual,

manuscript

mar mar marine, mariner

mater madre maternal, maternity,

matriarchy, matricide

ROOT MEANING WORD

mere parte, segmento mere

meta, met detrás, entre metacognition—

behind the thinking

metri, meter- medida geometric,

thermometer,

odometer

min pequeño minority, minuscule,

minute

mit, miss enviar permit, submission,

mission, emit,

mob, mot, mov movimiento mobile, automobile,

motion, promote,

movie

mon advertir premonition,

admonition

mor, mort muerte mortal, mortician,

immortality

morph forma, estructura metamorphosis,

amorphous,

morphology

mut cambio mutant, mutability,

mutate

neuro nervio neurology, neurosis,

neurobiology

nomen /nomin nombre nominal, nominate,

nomenclature


ROOT MEANING WORD

pend colgar, pesar pendulum, pendant,

suspend, pending

phon-, phono- sonido, voz telephone, euphony,

cacophony,

phonograph

plan plano planar, plantation,

plane

pneum pulmón pneumatic

pod pie podiatrist

port cargar, llevar portable, transport,

nov nuevo novel, renovate,

innovation, novella

nym, onym palabra, nombre synonym, acronym,

anonymous,

pseudonym

odonto diente orthodontist—one

who straightens teeth

ortho- derecho, correcto orthodox,

orthodontist,

orthopedic

pac paz pacify, Pacific Ocean,

pacifist

pater padre paternal, paternity,

patricide, patrilineal,

patriotic

path sentimiento, sufrimiento sympathy, apathy,

empathy, telepathy,

pathology

ped, pod pie pedal, pedometer,

centipede, gastropod

pel, puls empuje pulsate, repulsive,

impulse, compel,

propel


portage, report,

pot poder potent, omnipotent,

potentate

psych- alma, espíritu, mente psychology, psychic,

psychobiography

pugna lucha pugnacious, pugilist

quer, quis pregunta,

cuestionamiento

query, inquisition,

scent, scend trepar, escalar ascend, ascent

schizo, schiz división schizophrenic

sci saber scientific

sciss cortar scissors

scrib, script escritura manuscript, scribe,

proscribe, scripture

sec, sect cortar dissect, section

sed, sess sentar sedentary, session

sens, sent sentir, estar conciente sensible, sentient

sequ, secu seguir sequence, sequel,

consecutive

serv servir, proteger service

simil mismo, igual similar, assimilate,

simile, facsimile (fax)

ROOT MEANING WORD

siphon tubo siphon

sol sol solar

son sonido sonar, resonate,

unison

soph sabiduría, conocimiento philosophy,

sophisticated,


sophomore

spec, spic mirar, ver spectacles, spectator,

inauspicious,

prospect

spir resorte spiral

spir respiración inspire, respiration,

conspire,

perspiration

spond, spons promesa, respuesta a respond, responsible

spont por su propia fuerza spontaneous

stat estadía, posición station

tang, tact tacto tactile, tangible

temp tiempo temporary,

temporize

ten, tent sostén tentative, tenable,

tenuous

terr tierra subterranean,

terrain, terrestrial,

disinter

theo dios, deidad theology,

polytheism, atheist,

monotheism

therm- calor thermal, thermos,

thermometer

trophy nutrición, alimento atrophy—without

nutrition

uro orín urologist

vac vació vacation, vacuum,

vacuous, vacant

ven, vent venir, ir intervene, convene,

contravene

ver verdad veracity, verify,

verity


ROOT MEANING WORD

vert giro introvert,

irreversible,

vertigo

vit vida vital, revitalize,

vitamin

voc llamar revoke, invocation,

vocal, evocative,

convocation

zoo animal zoo, zoology,

zoolatry

PREFIXES

PREFIX MEANING EXAMPLES

a-, an- no, sin amoral, anesthetic,

apolitical, asocial

ab- lejos de abduction,

abstain, abnormal

ad- a, hacia adjoin, adjacent

(lying near to)

ambi- ambos ambidextrous,

ambivalent

ana- arriba, de regreso,

nuevamente

analogy, anatomy,

anagram

anti- contra antipathy, antiwar,

antisocial

apo- desde, alejado de apology, apologize

auto- auto, uno mismo autobiography,

automobile,

autocracy,

automaton

bene- bien benediction

benevolent


benefactor

cata-, cat- abajo, en contra de catastrophe--a

turning down

centro, centri- alrededor de, centro concentric,

centrifugal

circum- alrededor circumlocution

circumference,

circumvent

com- con, junto a communal,

community

con- con, junto a connect, confide

conspire


contra- contra contradict,

contravene

de- abajo, lejos descend, deject

(cast down)

dia-, di- a través diameter, division

dis- aparte, no disengage, discord,

discomfort

dys- mal, difícil, mal dysfunctional,

dysentery

e- de entre elect (choose out

of), eject (throw

out)

ecto- externo ectoderm--outer

skin

en-, em- en, con empathy--feeling

in

endo- dentro endoscope--

instrument for

observing inside

epi- sobre epitaph epidermis,


epicenter

eso- hacia adentro, dentro esoteric--more

inward, esophagus

eu- bien, bueno euthanasia--good

death

ex- fuera de, de adentro

hacia afuera

exhume, exhale,

exodus

hetero- otro, diferente heterosexual,

heterodoxy,

heterodox

heterogeneous

homo- igual homosexual,

homogeneous,

homogenized

hyper- por encima de hypertension,

hypersensitive,

hyperactivity

hypo- por debajo de hypotension,

hypodermic

il- no illegitimate, illicit,

illegal, illegible

im- no imperfect,

impolite,

impossible

im- hacia adentro imbibe (drink in,

take in)

in- no indiscreet,

invisible


in- en, hacia adentro incorporate (take

into the body)

inter- entre intervene (come

between), interstate

intra- dentro intrastate,


intramural

ir- no irregular, irrational,

irredeemable

macro- gran macrocosm,

macroeconomics

mal, male- malo, perverso malediction

malevolent,

malnutrition

meta- más allá Metaphysical

micro- pequeño microscope,

microcosm,

microeconomics

mono- uno, solo, único monologue,

monotheism,

monarchy,

monogamy

neo- nuevo, reciente neologism, neo-

liberal, neonatology.

Neolithic

ob- en contra de, contra object, obstruct

(build against)

palin-, pali- a la inversa, de nuevo palindrome

pan- todo/s, cada uno pantheism, Pan-

Hellenic, panorama,

pandemic

para- falso paramilitary,

paralegal, parachute

per- a través percolate (flow

through) perforate

(punch through)

peri- alrededor perimeter, periscope

phil-, philo- similar a, amante de philosophy,

Francophile,

bibliophile,

philanthropy


poly- muchos, varios polygon, polygamy,

polytechnic,

polytheism

post- después postgraduate,

posthumous

postpone

pre- antes precede, predict (tell

before)

pro- por, a favor de, hacia

adelante

promote, project


pros- hacia, al frente prospect—view in

front, something

coming up

proto- primero prototype,

protoplasm,

protobiology

pseudo Falso pseudonym,

pseudoscience

re- Nuevamente repeat, recede,

regress (step back)

retro- hacia atrás retrogression,

retroactive

se- alejado de seduce (lead away),

secede

sub- Bajo submarine, subject,

subhuman

subterranean

sur-, super- encima, arriba superhuman,

superego,

superintend,

surpass

syn-, sym-, syl-,

sys-

con, junto con symphony,

synonym, system,

syllable


tele- distante, a lo lejos telephone,

telepathy,

television, telegram

trans- a través transient,

Transatlantic,

transport (carry

across)

SUFFIXES

SUFFIX MEANING EXAMPLES

-agog, -agogue Líder demagogue,

pedagogue

-cide Matar patricide,

infanticide,

herbicide. suicide

-ectomy Cortar appendectomy,

splenectomy

-ia, -y acto, estado amnesia, mania,

democracy,

anarchy

-ic, -tic, -ical, -ac con relación a anthropomorphic,

dramatic, biblical,

cardiac

-ics temas relevantes a optics, physics

-isk, -iscus Pequeño asterisk--a little

star

-ism creer en pacifism,

terrorism,

socialism,

communism

-ist alguien que cree en pacifist, terrorist,

socialist,

communist

-ite uno conectado con meteorite, polite,


cosmopolite

-logy campo de estudio de biology, geology,

etymology,

cardiology

-oid parecido, similar a asteroid, spheroid

-or, -er uno que hace doctor, actor,

teacher, driver

-phobia temor exagerado photophobia,

claustrophobia,

agoraphobia

-sis acto, estado, condición de analysis

Módulo 4

Unidad 4

Lecturas complementarias

(primera parte)




Ahora aplicaremos todos los conocimientos adquiridos para interpretar este repaso de los contenidos básicos de un balance.

Lectura 1: Balances

The Balance Sheet – Order of Listing

Items on a balance sheet are listed in order of liquidity. Liquidity takes on a slightly

different meaning for assets and for claims on assets. For assets, liquidity means

The Balance Sheet – Balancing

The balance sheet must balance—that's why it's called a balance sheet. In other

words, the assets must equal the claims on assets. The concept of balancing relies on

the accounting equation which was discussed earlier in this lesson.

Assets = Liabilities + Owners' Equity

Balance Sheet

Products, Inc. January 1, 2009


nearness to cash. For this reason cash is the first item on the balance sheet.

After cash, the other current assets are listed in order of liquidity. Marketable

securities (which can be converted to cash by selling them), accounts receivable

(which may be factored), and finally inventories make up the rest of the current

assets. Inventories, which are considered current assets, are listed last because it is

generally harder to convert to cash a half-finished item in production than it would

a U.S. Treasury bond.

Following current assets come those assets that would take more time to convert to

cash. Buildings, land, and equipment would all be considered long-term or fixed

assets.

When ranking claims on assets, liquidity refers to how quickly the claim against the

company matures. Short-term or current liabilities mature quickly. Intermediate,

and then long-term liabilities would be listed next. Sometimes as longer-term

liabilities move toward maturity, the portion that matures is moved into current

liabilities.

Last on the claims portion of the balance sheet would be the equity accounts. For a

corporation, the preferred stock accounts would be listed before common equity

accounts. The last claimants on a company's assets are the common stockholders.

Balance Sheet


The Balance Sheet – Valuing Balance Sheet Items

Items on the assets side of the balance sheet are generally valued at cost. There are

two exceptions—marketable securities and inventories. The rule that applies to

marketable securities and inventories is lower of cost or market. That means that


current market value or original cost, whichever is lower, is the appropriate value

for marketable securities and inventories. For instance, if a share of stock was

originally purchased for $80 three years ago and its value has fallen to $60, the

value that would appear on the balance sheet is $60.

One note that should be made is in reference to accumulated depreciation. The

accumulated depreciation account is what is called a contra-asset account.

That means that even though accumulated depreciation is reflected on the assets

portion of the balance sheet, it in essence carries a minus sign. Therefore, if Gross

Fixed Assets are $1,000,000 and Accumulated Depreciation is $200,000, Net Fixed

Assets would be $800,000.

Balance Sheet



Definitions of Balance Sheet Items – Claims on Assets

Claims on assets arise from debt and from ownership claims on the company. As the number of liabilities and ownership items increase, the complexity of the balance sheet increases.

Balance Sheet


LIABILITIES AND OWNERS' EQUITY

Liabilities

Current Liabilities

Long-Term Debt – 1 Yr. $18,000

Notes Payable $39,000

Accounts Payable $15,000

Taxes Payable $13,000

Accrued Expenses $43,000

Other Current Liabilities

$11,000

Total Current Liabilities

Long-Term Liabilities

$139,000

Notes Payable $18,000

Bonds Payable

$99,000

Total Long-Term Liabilities

Other Liabilities

$117,000

Pension Obligations $98,900

Deferred Taxes $72,000

Minority Interest

$12,400

Total Other Liabilities

$183,300


Total Liabilities

$439,300

Owners Equity

Preferred Stock

Common Equity

$12,000

Common Stock $118,000

Capital Surplus $110,000

Retained Earnings $100,000

–Treasury Stock

–$55,000

Total Common Equity

$273,000

Total Owners' Equity

Total Liabilities and Owners' Equity

$285,000

$724,300

Definitions of Balance Sheet Items – Assets

Balance sheets may be quite detailed depending on the nature and

complexity of a business. Regardless of their complexity, however, the

same basic notions of construction apply. Again it is helpful to keep in

mind the "left–right" balance sheet orientation. An illustration of a

somewhat complex balance sheet may help understand the different

types of accounts. Assets will be covered first and next the claims on

assets.

Balance Sheet


ASSETS

Current Assets


Cash $50,000

Marketable Securities $70,000

Accounts Receivable $95,000

Notes Receivable $50,000

Inventories

Total Current Assets

$90,000

$355,000

Long-Term Assets

Tangible Assets

Land $89,000

Buildings $99,000

Machinery $35,000

–Accumulated Depreciation

–$5,000

Net Tangible Assets

Intangible Assets

$218,000

Goodwill $20,000

Patents $19,000

Trademarks $13,400

Organizational Costs

$22,900

Total Intangibles

Other Assets

$75,300

Investments $23,000

Deferred Charges

$53,000


Total Other Assets

$76,000

Total Long-Term Assets

Total Assets

$369,300

$724,300

The Income Statement

The Income Statement shows a firm's revenues and expenses, and

taxes associated with those expenses for some financial period.

Where the Balance Sheet may be thought of in terms of the "left–

right" orientation previously discussed, the income statement would

be thought of in "top–down" terms.

Sample Income Statement

Sales $540,000.00

Cost of Goods Sold $319,680.00

Gross Profit $220,320.00

Selling & Administrative

Expenses $132,300.00

Earnings Before Interest & Taxes $88,020.00

Interest $10,356.00

Taxable Income $77,664.00

Taxes $35,726.00

Net Income $41,938.00

Dividends $33,108.00


Transfer to Retained Earnings $8,830.00

A basic overview of income statement items shows how a

manufacturing company might present an income statement.

Income statements for other companies may appear to be slightly

different, but in general the construction would be the same.

An important concept in understanding the income statement is

Earnings Per Share (EPS). The EPS for a company is net income

divided by the number of shares of common stock outstanding. It

represents the bottom line for a company.

Glosario:

Accounts Payable: Short-term obligations, created by the acquisition of

goods and services.

Accounts Receivable: Monies due on accounts from customers.

Accrued Expenses: Short-term obligations, such as salaries, for services

received but not yet paid.

Accumulated Depreciation: Contra-asset account. Reduces gross

fixed assets.

Assets: Rights or resources that have future benefit or service potential,

which can be expressed in money terms and which result from a business

transaction.

Bonds Payable: Obligation due on maturity value of bonds.

Buildings: Structures valued at cost plus permanent improvements.

Capital Surplus: Reflection of amount received per share of stock in


excess of par value.

Cash: Negotiable checks and checking account balances, cash on hand.

Savings accounts are usually classified as cash.

Common Equity: Ownership of common stockholders. Common stock,

capital surplus and retained earnings.

Common Stock: Number of shares outstanding times par value.

Contra-asset: An asset item which would in essence carry a minus sign.

Current Assets: Liquid assets.

Deferred Charges: Expenses which have been deferred until some

future period.

Deferred Taxes: Longer-term tax obligations which have been deferred

to some future period.

Fixed Assets: Long-term assets.

Goodwill: Arises from the acquisition of a business for a sum greater

than physical asset value.

Income Statement: A statement showing a firms revenues and costs

and taxes associated with those revenues for some financial period.

Intangible Assets: Nonphysical assets such as legal rights or excess

earning power caused by a business transaction.

Inventories: Balances of goods on hand. Include raw materials, work in

process, finished goods.

Investments: Usually stocks and bonds; as well as monies set aside in

special funds.

Land: Shown at acquisition cost and not depreciated.

Liabilities: Debts owned by an entity that can be satisfied through

disbursing assets or rendering services.

Liquidity: For assets, nearness to cash. For liabilities, liquidity refers to

how quickly the claim will mature.

Long-Term Assets: Generally, long-term assets take longer than a year

to be converted to cash.

Long-term Debt - 1 Yr.: That portion of long-term debt which is

maturing within the year.

Long-term Liabilities: Due in period exceeding one year.

Machinery: Equipment listed at historical cost.

Marketable Securities: Ownership and debt instruments that can be

readily converted to cash.

Minority Interests: Ownership of minority shareholders in the equity


of consolidated subsidiaries. Generally considered a liability. (It is usually

seldom material.)

Net Tangible Assets: Gross assets minus accumulated depreciation.

Notes Payable: Debt owed on a short-term note.

Notes Payable: Promisory notes.

Notes Receivable: Monies due from debtors.

Organizational Costs: Legal costs incurred when a business is

organized. Carried as an asset and usually written off over a period of 5

years or longer.

Other Assets: Assets that do not fit into one of the other classifications.

Other Current Liabilities: Example dividends payable, items that do

not fit into other categories.

Other liabilities: Liabilities relating to operational obligations such as

pension obligations, deferred taxes, services warranties.

Patents: Exclusive legal rights granted to an investor for a period of 17

years.

Pension Obligations: Liabilities for future pension benefits due

employees

Preferred Stock: Special class of stock.

Retained Earnings: Undistributed earning of the corporation.

Tangible Assets: Physical facilities used in the operations of the

business.

Taxes Payable: Taxes due within the year

Trademarks: Distinctive names or symbols. Granted for 28 years with

option for renewal.

Treasury Stock: Stock in the company which has been repurchased and

not retired

Lectura Nº 2: Process

Documentation Narrative

and Flow Chart Guide

Source: www.knowledgeleader.com Introduction


Developing an adequate understanding of any processing environment is critical to performing internal audit reviews. This document will describe these techniques, provide a process flow example and guidance on elements to be incorporated. The guide will assist teams as documentation is developed and evaluated during the audit review process. Documenting an understanding of a process, related controls, and key roles and responsibilities can be achieved through process narratives and flow charts. Both of these documentation techniques assist internal audit teams and those responsible for the processes to establish a common understanding of a process. Once these documents are confirmed as accurate they provide a baseline for performing risk analysis, internal controls testing, and implementing process improvements as necessary. Narrative and process flow tools allow auditors to organize, describe, and graphically depict the results of:

Reviewing policy and procedure manuals; Discussing the process with key employees through inquiry; Performing a process walk through of sub-processes using

samples, etc. Considering key inputs and outputs to a process; Lines of responsibility for individual employee and departmental

roles

The objective of process narratives and flow diagrams is to generate an accurate representation of how work is actually performed. Audit teams are then positioned to add value to recommend improvements, evaluate segregation of duties controls, and identify key controls. See Appendix A for a sample flow chart. Typically, creating this type of documentation is a reiterative process that involves individuals at various levels of responsibility discussing processing steps, related documents and responsibilities, and process metrics or outputs. For example, an initial overview of a process is be described by a general ledger manager at a high-level. This initial description of the process may be a fair reflection of the actual policies and procedures manual. Then, per discussion with the monthly accrual accounting supervisor, additional details of the procedural inputs may confirm some of procedures pointed out by the general ledger manager and also reflect new detail or key changes to the process. Finally, inquiry and examination of process examples by those performing accrual analysis may reveal key authorization controls, supervisory review, and output schedules not described earlier. Together, the audit team must condense the process information into manageable narratives and process flows that incorporate all the key steps, processing responsibilities, documents, and actions. Both manual and application-based activities should be included with a focus on key control points and outputs. These will include authorizations, supervisory review, and controls configured in processing applications like access security, segregation of duties through restrictions to processing functionality, and


transaction logs. Risks & Controls Narratives and process flow maps are designed to assist the analysis of processing risks and related controls. Although these documentation techniques do not test the effectiveness of controls, they should promote an agreed upon understanding of how a process is performed, who performs specific duties (roles and responsibilities), and assertions about control activities. The control assertions may be part of or linked to the Committee of Sponsoring Organizations (COSO) Integrated Internal Control Framework. For example, the control elements of completeness, accuracy, authorization, safeguarding of assets, and rights/obligations, etc. should be incorporated into processing activities. It may not be critical to include reference to the COSO control elements but the audit team should be mindful that the underlying internal controls incorporated into the processes being documented mitigate associated risk of financial statement misstatement and ensure consistency with GAAP. Key risks and controls can be mapped on the process flow diagram to indicate when, by whom, and how controls mitigate risks. The example in appendix A utilizes numbered symbols such as small circles and triangles aligned with actual process flow shapes to indicate understanding at a specific junction of the process. These tick marks are different from the normal flow charting shapes that depict a starting/ending point, action/process, document or decision. Documentation Documentation typically includes a process summary, detailed process narrative, and a process flow diagram. Microsoft VISIO is a leading tool but other flowchart applications work well. Each flow diagram should include a legend of shapes used and other explanations. In addition, the diagram will have a list of risks and a separate list of identified controls that correlate to them on the process flow. Also, notice the extended horizontal lines that separate the processing departments included in the overall process. These “swim lanes” depict who is responsible for an action or decision. Diagrams may extend several pages and cover description in sufficient detail to reflect key processes, documents, risks and controls, and identification of personnel and systems involved.

Process Narrative & Flow Guide

Process Reviewed: ______________________ Location: ______________________ Process Management Rating: _____________ Sub-Process: ___________________


Process Summary: Yes or No

A) Does the process narrative summary have the preparer’s name?

B) Does the process narrative summary have the approver’s name (where applicable)?

C) Is the process owner name evident on the process narrative summary?

D) Are the relevant policies and procedures (P&P) noted on the summary?

E) Are the P&P in the documentation folder or related application storage facility? Where?

F) Does the summary clearly indicate the financial statement accounts impacted by the process?

G) Does the summary indicate the related COSO assertion (where applicable)?

Process Maps: Yes or No

A) Is there a defined start symbol (either start or connector from another map)?

B) Does the map have a legend that describes the various shapes in the map?

Is each shape in the map appropriate (e.g., database reference shows a database shape)?

C) Does each shape (process) describe ->

1) Who is performing the action? Note: Examples include: AP Clerk, Senior Accountant,

Controller, etc. This is particularly important when describing

authorization/approval controls.

2) Are only position titles (not names) utilized in the map?

3) What action are they performing [e.g., reconciling, posting, validating, etc]?

4) When are they performing the action?

5) Where is the action being performed (could be externally, internally, systemic application, database, etc., different dept, etc.)?

D) How is the action being performed? Note: describe what is being utilized to perform the action -

report name, database, etc.

E) Do the maps indicate inputs, outputs for each activity?

F) Is the input/output specifically identified (i.e., exact name of query or name of report)?

G) Have all FINANCIAL risks been identified? Note: What could go wrong for each shape - with a financial

impact focus?

H) Have all FINANCIAL controls been identified? Note: How do we prevent what could go wrong such as a

mitigating control?

I) Are there any estimates or assumptions in the process?


Is the methodology explained/documented in the narrative?

J) Does the process end at the end of the map?

Yes - Is there a defined end symbol?

No - Is the next process connector on the map instead of an end symbol?

K) If process map is linked to/from another, have the terminology and common activities been named the same between maps?

L) Have risks been documented where the risk is occurring?

M) Have controls been documented where they occur? Note: controls that occur outside of the process (e.g., senior

management operational review) should be documented on the

map.

Does every risk identified on the process map have an associated description in the narrative?

N) Does every risk identified on a process step have a control and vice versa?

Information Technology: Yes or No

A) Is the specific database referenced where process information exists?

B) Does the narrative indicate which database?

C) Have IT processes within each financial/operational process map been identified?

D) Has IT provided process and control information when computer applications are involved?

Are all the applications used listed/represented?

E) If the financial process is dependent on other IT processes (e.g., polling, interfaces, etc.), have these IT processes been identified and linked to the applicable IT map(s)?

F) Has IT provided process and control information when computer applications are involved?

G) Do process flow maps or narratives cite specific application controls and related individual users (position associated with access)?

Note: See the Controls Checklist below for coverage of basic IT

control attributes.

Risk Checklist Yes or No

A) Is the risk defined adequately enough to explain what could go wrong - from a financial reporting perspective only?

B) Have all FINANCIAL risks been identified? Note: Think about what could go wrong for each shape and focus

on the financial impact.


C) Does the risk identified collaborate with a COSO assertion?

D) Does every risk have its own number?

E) Does every risk link to at least one control?

F) Does every risk statement contain the cause and effect?

Controls Checklist Yes or No

Have all FINANCIAL controls been identified? - [How do we

prevent what could go wrong?]

Are there any risks/controls that apply to the whole process?

FOR EACH CONTROL:

Does the control list who performed, when in the process/cycle,

and how executed?

I. If a restrict access control, does the control detail that the:

a. Access is relevant to job responsibilities.

b. Access is reviewed periodically for appropriateness.

c. Access is appropriately authorized.

II. If an exception report control, does the control detail:

a. What information is contained in the report?

b. Who reviews the report and how often?

c. What follow-up activities are performed for

exceptions/errors detected?

d. How are file transfers reviewed for completeness and

accuracy?

e. How often do file transfers occur?

f. What system generates the report?

III. If a management review/monitoring control, does the control

detail:

a. How often are reports/results reviewed?

b. What is the purpose of the review?

c. Who performs?

d. Follow up procedures for discrepancies/unusual


variances?

IV. If a segregation of duties control, does the control detail:

a. Which responsibilities are segregated?

b. How are duties segregated? (view / read-only)

c. Does an organization or department chart exist, and where

is it located?

V. If an approval or authorization control, does the control detail:

a. Whether it is manually documented or system driven?

b. Who approves (what level of management?)

c. Existence of an established level of authorization?

VI. If a reconciliation control, does the control detail:

a. Who prepares and performs the reconciliation?

b. What is the purpose of the reconciliation?

c. Who reviews the reconciliation?

d. What is the evidence of the review? ( manager approval)

e. What reports are used and which systems generate the

reports used?

f. How are differences investigated / resolved?

VII. If a document control, does the control detail that:

a. Documents are pre-numbered and system generated (e.g.,

sales orders, invoices etc)

b. Documents are safeguarded (e.g., physical controls over

checks, contracts, manual journal entry logs, etc.)?

VIII. If a physical asset control, does the control detail:

a. How is the access to the asset and related record keeping

appropriately restricted and is it reviewed periodically?

b. What procedures ensure the accuracy of the related record

keeping (activity logs)?

IV. If a system based control, does the control detail:

a. All key fields for data entry must contain valid information

(e.g., current date, established dollar range) in order for a

record to be accepted.


b. Information is validated against a master table (e.g.,

customer number, product number, vendor number, PO

number).

c. Master tables are reviewed and updated regularly to

ensure accuracy and table data is safeguarded.

d. Duplicate postings/entries are not accepted.

e. Accounting period-end cut-off dates are enforced by the

system.

f. System-based control overrides must be authorized.

Additional Considerations:

A) Is the methodology explained / documented in the control descriptions for formulas etc?

B) Is the control frequency documented e.g., quarterly, monthly, weekly, daily, multiple times daily?

C) The control description adequately explains how it mitigates the risk?

D) Is the control type (Preventive, Detective, Corrective) listed?

Is the control type listed accurate?

E) Is the control owner listed?

F) Are only position titles (not names) utilized in the RCM?

G) Is the control technique (Systemic, Manual) listed?

Is the control technique listed accurate?

H) Is the control level (Primary, Secondary, Tertiary) listed?

Is the control level listed accurate?

I) Is the COSO component identified?

Is the COSO component identified accurate?

J) Has the preparer assessed the design effectiveness?

K) Do you agree with the assessment of design effectiveness?

L) Has the preparer documented any deficiencies (Control gaps) in the design effectiveness?

Módulo 4

Unidad 4


(segunda parte)




Process Flow Map / Work day:

Sales and Inventory

systems are closed on

last day of period

Page 2

Gen

eral

Led

ger

Gro

up

AP

Dep

artm

en

t

START

IT Department

generates Stock Ledger

report (in Inventory

system) for input into the

General Ledger (GL)

System

WD 2 through WD 5

Flow

Terminator

WD 1

Summary page of Stock

Ledger report is printed

which lists all

transactions into

Inventory system for the

month

Accounts Payable

close - all AP

related accruals

booked by AP

Department

GL Group receives

Stock Ledger report

for manual entry of

cost entries GL

system

Personnel within GL

Group close specific

financial statement

captions

Recurring entries

are made (2 types:

(1) same amount

each month (2)

different amount but

recurring entry each

month)

Reverse accrual

entries from prior

month

Reversing entries

are completed

right after the

previous month’s

close

Info

rmati

on

Tec

hn

olo

gy

The AP close process is a separate process

performed by AP Dept. (see narrative on AP close

process for further details)

GL Personnel are responsible for

entries such as fixed assets, prepaid

amort., Payroll, etc.

IT Department

generates sales

spreadsheet (in Sales

system) for upload into

the GL system

GL Group receives

sales spreadsheet

from IT and uploads

to GL

END

END

1 1

2 2

Flowchart Legend

Risk Control in

place,

operating

effectively

Control in

place, not

operating

effectively

No control

in placeProcess

Decision

PointReport System Predefined

ProcessNotes Off-page

Connector

3 3

5a 5

4 4

1

2

8

2

1 1196 6 87 1098


KEY CONTROLS

Various review activities are performed throughout the close process to verify financial data. These activities include the Finance department’s (Finance) review of intercompany account

balances for discrepancies, review of currency translation adjustments, and review of prior and current year accumulated deficit balances.

Systematic security roles exist, which grant access rights based on the needs of each department.

Accrual reversing entries are completed utilizing an automated process within the General Ledger (GL) system . This process occurs after the previous month's close process.

A number of controls exist in the Accounts Payable (AP) close process. See narrative regarding the AP Close Process - identifying risks and controls specific to that process.

The Inventory Control group* performs a daily reconciliation of Inventory system and GL system data.

The accounting system has functionality to set up recurring journal entries and to indicate a range of dates for which the entries will be valid.

All journal entries are prepared using a standard electronic journal entry form within GL system.

The Accounting Manager* reviews all journal entries.

System access to post journal entries (JE) is limited to 3 persons in Finance. The Accounting Manager* is the primary person responsible for posting entries, while the others* serve as backup.

Supporting documentation for journal entries is retained and is used to validate entry postings.

Each month, the Accounting Manager* prepares a schedule for the "close the books" process that identifies the critical closing tasks, the personnel responsible for completing the tasks, and the

corresponding due dates. The schedule is posted on the server and is accessible to the GL group* and appropriate department managers*.

Exchange rates used for translation are obtained from a reliable, external source. The Company uses OANDA (www.oanda.com), a currency and foreign exchange service, to determine their

exchange rate.

Exchange rates are input into the system and the foreign entity's financial statements are automatically calculated.

Tax information is obtained from a knowledgeable and competent source. The Company employs outside tax professionals* to identify and provide the necessary information. Monthly tax entries are

recorded based on the tax rate provided.

The general ledger is closed at month-end to prevent entries from being made after the books are closed.

The Accounting Manager reconciles Foreign Branch data entered into spreadsheet to the data reported on the Foreign Branch’s accounting group's balance sheet and income statement.

All intercompany accounts and transactions are reconciled for accuracy of reporting of intercompany transactions between entities.

CFO*, VP Controller*, and Director of FP&A* review consolidated financial statements for accuracy.

Financial Statements are reviewed for accuracy by appropriate personnel (outside of finance), including department heads* and external auditors*.

Account reconciliations are reviewed by the Accounting Manager*.

Elimination entries are limited, due to the fact that only two GL accounts are utilized for intercompany transactions. Intercompany transactions are reconciled and the Accounting Manager* ensures

the intercompany accounts are equal to zero upon elimination of the intercompany accounts.

* Personnel appear knowledgeable and competent with regards to applicable responsibilities and tasks.

1

2

3

4

5

21

19

18

17

16

15

14

13

12

11

10

9

8

7

6

20

Módulo 4

Unidad 4


(tercera parte)




Lectura Nº 3: Glossary of Labor

Relations

http://www.umbc.edu/collectivebargaining/glossary.html

Note: These definitions are general and may be defined differently in the

future by the Board of Regents and/or the State Higher Education Labor

Relations Board (SHELRB).

Agent - Representante

A person acting for an employer or a union. Acts of the agent implicates

the principal for whom the agent acts in matters of unfair labor practices

or of conduct subject to court action whether or not specifically

authorized or approved.

Arbitration - Arbitraje

Where it is available, a method of settling a labor-management dispute

by having an impartial third party hold a formal hearing, take testimony

and render a decision. The decision is usually binding upon the parties

(i.e., the University, the union and the employees).

Authorization Card – Tarjeta de autorización

A form voluntarily signed by an employee whereby the employee

authorizes a labor organization (union) to represent him/her for the

purpose of collective bargaining. Some cards will also state that the

employee desires an election to be held to determine whether or not the

union has the full support of the majority of the employees in the

bargaining unit.

Award - Adjudicación

The decision of an arbitrator in a dispute. The arbitrator's award is based

upon the evidence presented, the wording in the collective bargaining

agreement and the arguments of both parties. In labor arbitration, the

arbitrator's reasons are generally expressed in the form of a written

opinion, which accompanies the award.

Bargaining Agent – Agente negociador

A labor organization that is the exclusive representative of all employees

in a bargaining unit, both union and non-union members.

Business Agent/Rep – Agente / Representante de Negocios


A full-time paid union official who handles grievances, helps enforce

collective bargaining agreements and performs other tasks in the day-to-

day operation of a union.

Certification - Certificación

A determination by the labor board that a particular labor organization

has received a majority of the ballots cast in a representation election

held among employees in a bargaining unit.

Cease-and-Desist Order – Orden de suspensión y desistimiento

A written statement issued by the labor board requiring the employer or

union to abstain from conduct which has been found to be an unfair

labor practice.

Checkoff - Deducción

A provision, generally found in the collective bargaining agreement or

MOU, that allows union dues, assessments and initiation fees to be

deducted from the pay of union members who decide to use the check

off. The employer then transfers the payments to the union on a

scheduled basis.

Collective Bargaining – Negociación Colectiva

A method of mutually determining wages, hours and terms and

conditions of employment through negotiations between representatives

of the employer and the union. The results of the bargaining are set forth

in a collective bargaining agreement. Collective bargaining determines

the conditions of employment for all employees holding jobs in a

bargaining unit.

Collective Bargaining Agreement – Convenio Colectivo

A written agreement or contract that is the result of negotiations

between an employer and a union. It sets out the conditions of

employment (wages, hours, benefits, etc.) and ways to settle disputes

arising during the term of the contract. Collective bargaining agreements

usually run for a definite period--one, two or three years. Synonymous

with Memorandum of Understanding or MOU.

Confidential Employee – Empleado que maneja información

confidencial o reservada

An employee whose job requires him/her to develop or present

management positions on labor relations and/or collective bargaining,

or whose duties normally require access to confidential information that

contributes significantly to the development of such management

positions. Confidential jobs are not in the bargaining unit and do not

have the right to bargain collectively. Note: Under Maryland law, the

Board of Regents has the authority to define this term.


Employee Organization – Organización de Empleados (una especie

de sindicato)

Any organization of University employees that exists either partly or

solely for the purpose of dealing with the University over grievances,

work disputes, wages, hours and other terms and conditions of

employment.

Exclusionary Process – Proceso de Exclusión

Discussions and, if necessary, a labor board hearing to determine which

employee positions should be excluded from a bargaining unit because

the positions are managerial, supervisory or confidential.

Exclusive Representative – Representante Exclusivo

An employee organization that has the right to solely represent the

bargaining unit for purposes of collective bargaining.

Fair Share – Cuota Sindical Nivelada

A fee (usually called an agency fee) paid to the union by members of a

bargaining unit who have not joined that union. The fee pays for services

and benefits that the union has negotiated for all members of the

bargaining unit. Note: Presently not allowed by Maryland higher

education collective bargaining law.

Free Riders - Oportunistas

A term used by unions to designate non-members within the bargaining

unit who obtain, without cost, the benefits of a contract/MOU gained

through the efforts of the dues--paying members.

Grievance – Queja / Reclamo

A formal complaint usually lodged by an employee or the union alleging

a misinterpretation or improper application of one or more terms in a

collective bargaining contract/MOU. The method for dealing with

grievances is through a grievance procedure negotiated in the union

contract/MOU. If a grievance cannot be settled at the supervisory level,

it can be appealed to higher levels of management. Note: Maryland law

establishes the employee grievance procedures for University employees.

Grievance Arbitration – Arbitraje Conciliatorio

The appeal of grievances to an impartial arbitrator for final and binding

determination. Sometimes called arbitration of "rights." The arbitrator

determines the meaning of the contract/MOU and clarifies and

interprets its terms. Arbitration, where it is available, is usually the last

step in the grievance procedure. Note: Maryland law establishes the

employee grievance procedures for University employees.


Grievance Procedure – Procedimiento Conciliatorio o de Resolución

de Conflictos

The steps established in a collective bargaining contract/MOU for the

handling of grievances made by or on behalf of employees. Note:

Maryland law establishes the employee grievance procedures for

University procedures.

Impasse – Impasse o Punto Muerto

A deadlock in negotiations. After bargaining in good faith, the parties

have failed the reach an agreement on one or more issues. Note: There is

presently no procedure in Maryland higher education collective

bargaining law which deals with resolving an impasse.

Initiation Fee – Tarifa de Matriculación

A fee required by many unions of all new members or of employees who

have left the union and wish to return. Initiation fees may serve several

union purposes, including an additional source of revenue.

Labor Board – Junta Laboral (representa al gobierno)

Defined by the Maryland higher education collective bargaining law as

the State Higher Education Labor Relations Board (SHELRB), an

independent State unit. The SHELRB is a five-member panel appointed

by the Governor after July 1, 2001, and approved by the Senate. The

SHELRB is responsible for establishing procedures for and overseeing

elections for exclusive representatives, as well as investigating and taking

action regarding unfair labor practices.

Labor Organizer – Reclutador sindical

A person usually employed by a union (usually the regional or

international union), whose function it is to enlist the employees of a

particular employer to join the union.

Management's Rights – Derechos de la Gerencia (o de la Dirección)

de la empresa

Certain rights that management maintains as fundamental to the ability

to manage and operate the organization. They are not required,

negotiable subjects of collective bargaining. These rights are often

expressly reserved to management in the management's rights clause of

the bargaining agreement. They include the right to hire, promote,

suspend or discharge employees; to direct the work of employees; and to

establish operating policies. Note: Maryland law establishes the

management's rights of the University.


Managerial Employee – Empleado Ejecutivo (tiene

responsabilidades de formulación y administración de políticas y

programas)

An employee who has significant responsibilities for formulating or

administering policies and programs. Note: Under Maryland law, the

Board of Regents has the authority to define this term.

Membership Card – Tarjeta de membrecía al organismo sindical

A form voluntarily signed by an employee whereby the employee joins

the labor organization and agrees to abide by its constitution and bylaws

and to pay its dues and fees.

Memorandum of Understanding/Labor Contract – Convenio de

Acuerdo / Contrato Laboral

The resulting agreement reached by the parties during the

negotiations/bargaining process. Also known as a collective bargaining

agreement or contract.

Public Employee – Empleado Público

A person who is employed by a municipal, county, state, or federal

agency or state college or university.

Representation Election – Elección del Representante Negociador

Secret balloting by employees in a bargaining unit for the purpose of

selecting a bargaining agent or no representation.

Shop Steward/Steward – Delegado Sindical

The union representative of a group of fellow employees who carries out

duties of the union within the workplace. Example: Handling grievances,

collecting dues, recruiting new members and monitoring compliance

with the contract.

The steward usually is either elected by other union members or

appointed by higher union officials. The steward usually remains an

employee while handling union business. Some release time (with or

without pay) may be available to stewards under specific language in

many collective bargaining contracts.

Supervisor - Supervisor

An individual (regardless of his/her job description or title) having

authority, in the interest of the employer, to hire, transfer, suspend, lay

off, recall, promote, discharge, assign, reward or discipline other

employees of the employer. A supervisory employee is also one who has

responsibility for directing employees, answering their grievances, or

recommending disciplinary action, if authority is not merely clerical but


requires independent judgment. Note: Under Maryland law, the Board

of Regents has the authority to define this term.

Unfair Labor Practice – Práctica Laboral Injusta

An act or omission on the part of either the union or management which

violates the regulations set forth by the State Higher Education Labor

Relations Board.

Lectura Nº 4: Collective bargaining

Collective bargaining and labor arbitration: an overview

Collective bargaining consists of negotiations between an employer and a

group of employees so as to determine the conditions of employment.

The result of collective bargaining procedures is a collective agreement.

Employees are often represented in bargaining by a union or other labor

organization. Collective bargaining is governed by federal and state

statutory laws, administrative agency regulations, and judicial decisions.

In areas where federal and state law overlap, state laws are preempted.

See, U.S. Constitution, Art. VI.

The main body of law governing collective bargaining is the National

Labor Relations Act (NLRA). It explicitly grants employees the right to

collectively bargain and join trade unions. The NLRA was originally

enacted by Congress in 1935 under its power to regulate interstate

commerce. See, U.S. Constitution Art. I, Section 8. It applies to most

private non-agricultural employees and employers engaged in some

aspect of interstate commerce. Decisions and regulations of the National

Labor Relations Board, which was established by the NLRA, greatly

supplement and define the provisions of the act.

The NLRA establishes procedures for the selection of a labor

organization to represent a unit of employees in collective bargaining.

The act prohibits employers from interfering with this selection. The

NLRA requires the employer to bargain with the appointed

representative of its employees. It does not require either side to agree to

a proposal or make concessions but does establish procedural guidelines

on good faith bargaining. Proposals which would violate the NLRA or

other laws may not be subject to collective bargaining. The NLRA also

establishes regulations on what tactics (e.g. strikes, lock-outs, picketing)

each side may employ to further their bargaining objectives.

State laws further regulate collective bargaining and make collective

agreements enforceable under state law. They may also provide

guidelines for those employers and employees not covered by the NLRA,

such as agricultural laborers.


Arbitration is a method of dispute resolution used as an alternative to

litigation. It is commonly designated in collective agreements between

employers and employees as the way to resolve disputes. The parties

select a neutral third party (an arbiter) to hold a formal or informal

hearing on the disagreement. The arbiter then issues a decision binding

on the parties. Both federal and state law governs the practice of

arbitration. While the Federal Arbitration Act, by its own terms, is not

applicable to employment contracts, federal courts are increasingly

applying the law in labor disputes. Fourty-nine states have adopted the

Uniform Arbitration Act (1956) as state law. Thus, the arbitration

agreement and decision of the arbiter may be enforceable under state

and federal law.

Lectura Nº 5: Leadership Management

Glossary and Definitions

http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/leader/leaddef.html

Affirmative action

A hiring policy that requires employers to analyze the work force for

under-representation of protected classes. It involves recruiting

minorities and members of protected classes, changing management

attitudes or prejudices towards them, removing discriminatory

employment practices, and giving preferred treatment to protected

classes.

Assessing

The process of conducting In Process Reviews (IPRs) and After Action

Reviews (AARs). IPRs help to determine initial expectations, ascertain

strengths and weakness of both employees and the organization, and

identify key issues and organizations whose willing support is needed to

accomplish the mission. AARs determine how well the goals are being

accomplished, usually by identifying areas to sustain and improve.

Attributes

Characteristics or qualities or properties. Attributes of the leader fall into

three categories: mental, physical, and emotional.

Beliefs

Assumptions and convictions that a person holds to be true regarding

people, concepts, or things.


Benchmarking

The process of measuring the organization's products, services, cost,

procedures, etc. against competitors or other organizations that display a

"best in class" record.

Brainstorming

A technique for teams that is used to generate ideas on a subject. Each

person on the team is asked to think creatively and write down as many

ideas as possible. After the writing session, the ideas are discussed by the

team.

Capacity

The capability of a worker, system, or organization to produce output per

time period. It can be classified as budgeted, dedicated, demonstrated,

productive, protective, rated, safety, or theoretical.

Communicating

Comprises the ability to express oneself effectively in individual and

group situations, either orally or in writing. It involves a sender

transmitting an idea to a receiver.

Conflict of interest

Any business activity, personal or company related, that interferes with

the company's goals or that entails unethical or illegal actions.

Constraint

Any element or factor that prevents a person from reaching a higher

lever of performance with respect to her goal.

Corporate culture

The set of important assumptions that members of the company share. It

is a system of shared values about what is important and beliefs about

how the company works. These common assumptions influence the ways

the company operates.

Corrective action

The implementation of solutions resulting in the reduction or

elimination of an identified problem.

Counseling

Talking with a person in a way that helps that person solve a problem or

helps to create conditions that will cause the person to improve his

behavior, character, or values. Providing basic, technical, and sometimes


professional assistance to employees in order to help them with personal

and work related problems.

Culture

The long-term complex phenomenon that can be affected by strategic

leaders. Culture represents the shared expectations and self-image of the

organization. The mature values that create "tradition", the play out of

"climate" or "the feel of the organization" over time, and the deep,

unwritten code that frames "how we do things around here" contribute

to the culture. Organizational culture is a system of shared values,

assumptions, beliefs, and norms that unite the members of the

organization. Individual leaders cannot easily create or change culture.

Decision making

The process of reaching logical conclusions, solving problems, analyzing

factual information, and taking appropriate actions based on the

conclusions.

Decision matrix

A matrix used by teams to evaluate possible solutions to problems. Each

solution is listed. Criteria are selected and listed on the top row to rate

the possible solutions. Each possible solution is rated on a scale from 1 to

5 for each criterion and the rating recorded in the corresponding grid.

The ratings of all the criteria for each possible solution are added to

determine each solution's score. The scores are then used to help decide

which solution deserves the most attention.

Solutions

Criterion 1

Criterion 2

Criterion 3

Hire new personnel

3

4

4

Train the workers we

have

5

4

3

Simplify the process

2

1

3

Deficiency

Failure to meet a set performance standard.


Deming's 14 points

Management philosophy to help organizations increase their quality and

productivity:

1. Create constancy of purpose for improving product or service. 2. Adopt the new philosophy. 3. Stop dependency on inspection to achieve quality 4. End the practice of awarding business on price alone - minimize cost by working with a single vendor. 5. Constantly improve every process for planning, production, and service. 6. Institute training on the job. 7. Adopt and institute leadership. 8. Drive out fear. 9. Break down barriers between staff areas. 10. Eliminate slogans, exhortations, and targets for the work force. 11. Eliminate numerical quotas and goals for the workforce and management. 12. Remove barriers that rob people of pride in workmanship and eliminate the annual rating or merit system. 13. Institute a vigorous program of education and self-improvement for everyone. 14. Put everyone in the organization to work to accomplish the transformation.

Diversity

Committing to establish an environment where the full potential of all

employees can be tapped by paying attention to, and taking into account

their differences in work background, experience, age, gender, race, ethic

origin, physical abilities, religious belief, sexual orientation, and other

perceived differences.

Efficiency

A measure (as a percentage) of the actual output to the standard output

expected. Efficiency measures how well someone is performing relative

to expectations.

Empowerment

A condition whereby employees have the authority to make decisions

and take action in their work areas, jobs, or tasks without prior approval.

It allows the employees the responsibility normally associated with

staffs. Examples are scheduling, quality, or purchasing decisions.

Environment


1. The political, strategic, or operational context within the organization.

2. The external environment is the environment outside the

organization.

Ethical climate

The "feel of the organization" about the activities that have ethical

content or those aspects of the work environment that constitute ethical

behavior. The ethical climate is the feel about whether we do things

right; or the feel of whether we behave the way we ought to behave.

Evaluation

Judging the worth, quality, or significance of people, ideas, or things.

Executing

The ability to complete individual and organizational assigned tasks

according to specified standards and within certain time criteria or event

criteria.

Feedback

The flow of information back to the learner so that actual performance

can be compared with planned performance.

Five why's

The practice of (Japanese) asking "why" five times when confronted with

a problem. By the time the fifth why is answered, they believe they have

found the ultimate cause of the problem.

Flexibility

The ability of a system to respond quickly, in terms of range and time, to

external or internal changes.

Flextime

An arrangement in which employees are allowed to choose work hours

as long as the standard number of work hours are met. Also, some

flextime systems require that the hours fall within a certain range, e.g.

5:00 A.M. to 9:00 P.M.

Follow-up

Monitoring of job, task, or project progress to see that operations are

performed on schedule.

Improving

A focus on sustaining and renewing the development of individuals and

the organization (with a time horizon from months to decades) that


requires a need for experimentation and innovation with results that are

difficult to quantify. Usually it entails long-term, complex outcomes.

Integrity

A moral virtue that encompasses the sum total of a person's set of values

and moral code. A breach of any of these values will damage the integrity

of the individual. Integrity, comes from the same Latin root (integritas)

as the word "integer," refers to a notion of completeness, wholeness, and

uniqueness. Integrity also entails the consistent adherence of action to

one's personal moral beliefs.

Job enlargement

An increase in the number of tasks that an employee performs. It is

associated with the design of jobs to reduce employee dissatisfaction.

Job enrichment

An increase in the number of tasks that an employee performs and an

increase in the control over those tasks. It is associated with the design of

jobs and is an extension of job enlargement.

Kaizen

The Japanese term for improvement. It involves both workers and

managers.

Leadership

The process of influencing people while operating to meet organizational

requirements and improving the organization through change.

Learning curve

A curve reflecting the rate of improvement in performing a new task as a

learner practices and uses her newly acquired skills.

Management by objectives (MBO)

A participative goal-setting process that enables the manager or

supervisor to construct and communicate the goals of the department to

each subordinate. At the same time, the subordinate is able to formulate

personal goals and influence the department's goals.

Model

(1) A person that serves as a target subject for a learner to emulate. (2) A

representation of a process or system that show the most important

variables in the system in such a way that analysis of the model leads to

insights into the system.


Motivation

The combination of a person's desire and energy directed at achieving a

goal. It is the cause of action.

Participative leadership

A style of leadership in which the leader involves one or more employees

in determining what to do and how to do it. The leader maintains final

decision making authority.

Performance efficiency

A ratio (percentage) of the actual output of a person as compared to the

desired or planned output.

Performance rating

Observation of a person's performance to rate productivity in terms of

the performance standard

Performance standard

A criterion or benchmark against which actual performance is measured.

Planning

A course of action for oneself and others to accomplish goals;

establishing priorities and planning appropriate allocation of time and

resources and proper assignment of people to achieve feasible,

acceptable, and suitable goals.

Plan-do-check-action (PDCA)

Sometimes referred to as the Shewhart Cycle, for the inventor - Walter A.

Shewhart. A four step process for quality improvement:

Plan - A plan to effect improvement is developed

Do - The plan is carried out, first, on a small scale if possible

Check - The effects of the plan are observed

Action - The results are studied and observed to determine what was learned and what can be predicted

Process improvement

Activities designed to identify and eliminate causes of poor quality,

process variation, and non-value added activities.

Productivity

An overall measure of the ability to produce a product or service. It is the

actual output of production compared to the actual input of resources.


Quality

Conformance to the requirements of a stated product or service

attribute.

Selfless service

The proper ordering of priorities. Think of it as service before self. The

welfare of the organization come before the individual. This does not

mean that the individual neglects to take care of family or self. Also, it

does not preclude the leader from having a healthy ego or self esteem,

nor does it preclude the leader from having a healthy sense of ambition.

It does, however, preclude selfish careerism.

Self-directed work team

A small independent, self-organized, and self-controlling group in which

members plan, organize, determine, and manage their duties and

actions, as well as perform many other supportive functions.

Seven tools of quality

Tools that help an organization understand its processes in order to

improve them:

Cause and effect diagram (Ishikawa diagram) - A tool developed by Kaoru Ishikawa for analyzing process dispersion. It illustrates the main causes and subcauses leading to an effect or symptom. It is sometimes referred to as a fishbone chart because it resembles a fish skeleton.

Check sheet - A data recording tool designed by the user to facilitate the interpretation of results.

Control chart - A graphic comparison of actual performance with precomputed control limits. The performance data consists of groups of measurements selected in sequence of production that preserves the order. It is used to detect assignable causes of variation in a process as opposed to random variation.

Flowchart - A type of planning and control chart designed to show graphically the relationship between planned performance and actual performance over time. It was named after its originator, Henry L. Gantt. It follows job progress, where one horizontal line represents the time schedule and another adjacent line represents the actual performance of the project.

Histogram - A graph of contiguous vertical bars representing a frequency distribution in which the groups of items are marked on the x axis and the number of items in each class is indicated on the y axis. The pictorial nature allows people to see patterns that are difficult to see in a table of numbers.

Pareto chart - A graphical tool for ranking causes from most significant to least significant. It is based on the Pareto principle which states that a small percentage of a group accounts for the largest fraction of the impact, value, etc. That is 80% of the effects come from 20% of the possible causes.


Scatter chart - A graphical technique used to analyze the relationship between two variables. Two sets of data are plotted on a graph, with the y axis used for the variable to be predicted, and the x axis used for the variable to make the prediction.

Skills (competencies)

Those abilities that people develop and use with people, with ideas, and

with things, hence, the division of interpersonal, cognitive, and technical

skills.

Standard

An established norm against which measurements are compared. The

time allowed to perform a task including the quality and quantity of

work to be produced.

Standard time

The length of time that should be required to perform a task through one

complete cycle. It assumes an average worker follows prescribed

procedures and allows time for rest to overcome fatigue.

Stress

The real or perceived demand on the mind, emotions, spirit, or body.

Too much stress puts an undo amount of pressure upon us and drives us

into a state of tension. Controlled stress is good as it is what motivates

us.

Supervising

The ability to establish procedures for monitoring and regulating

processes, tasks, or activities of employees and one's own job, taking

actions to monitor the results of delegated tasks or projects.

Theory of constraints (TOC)

A management philosophy developed by Dr. Eliyahu M. Goldratt that is

broken down into three interrelated areas - logistics, performance

measurement, and logical thinking. Logistics include drum-buffer-rope

scheduling, buffer management, and VAT analysis. Performance

measurement includes throughput, inventory and operating expense,

and the five focusing steps. Logical thinking includes identifying the root

problem (current reality tree), identifying and expanding win-win

solutions (evaporating cloud and future reality tree), and developing

implementation plans (prerequisite tree and transition tree).

Total employee involvement

An empowerment technique where employees participate in actions and

decision making that were traditionally reserved for management.


Total quality management (TQM)

Describes Japanese style management approaches to quality

improvement. It includes the long term success of the organization

through customer satisfaction and is based on participation of all

members of the organization in improving process, products, service,

culture, etc.

Trait

A distinguishing quality or characteristic of a person. For a trait to be

developed in a person, that person must first believe in and value that

trait.

Values

Ideas about the worth or importance of things, concepts, and people.

Worker efficiency

A measure (usually computed as a percentage) of worker performance

that compares the standard time allowed to complete a task to the actual

worker time to complete it.

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Notes: Created May 11, 1997. Updated October 3, 2009

A Big Dog, Little Dog and Knowledge Jump Production. Contact:

[email protected]

4.7 Reported Speech [Discurso Indirecto] Usamos el discurso indirecto para informar lo que dijo alguien más. Al pasar el discurso directo a indirecto, no usamos comillas. Observe cuál es la secuencia de tiempos verbales que debe usar cuando el verbo usado para reportar está en pasado.

QUOTED SPEECH REPORTED SPEECH

Ed said, “ I walk home every day.” Ed said, “ I walked home.” Ed said, “ I will walk home.” Ed said, “ I am walking home.” Ed said, “ I was walking home…” Ed said, “ I will be walking home.” Ed said, “ I have walked home.” Ed said, “ I had walked home …” Ed said, “ I will have walked home…” Ed said, “ I have been walking home…” Ed said, “ I had been walking home…” Ed said, “ I will have been walking home…” Ed said, “ I am going to walk home.” Ed said, “ I can walk home.” Ed said, “ I could walk home.” Ed said, “ I may walk home.” Ed said, “ I might walk home.” Ed said, “ I must walk home.” Ed said, “ I have to walk home.” Ed said, “ I should walk home.” Ed said, “ I ought to walk home.” Ed said, “ I would walk home.” Ed said, “ I used to walk home.” Ed said, “ I should have walked home.” Ed said, “ Walk home. Don’t take a cab.” Ed said, “ Do you walk home?” Ed said, “ Wny did you walk home?”

Ed said (that) he walked home every day.” Ed said he had walked home.” Ed said he would walk home.” Ed said he was walking home.” Ed said he had been walking home…” Ed said he would be walking home.” Ed said he had walked home.” Ed said he had walked home …” Ed said he would have walked home…” Ed said he had been walking home…” Ed said he had been walking home…” Ed said he would have been walking home…” Ed said he was going to walk home.” Ed said he could walk home.” Ed said he could walk home.” Ed said he might walk home.” Ed said he might walk home.” Ed said he had to walk home.” Ed said he had to walk home.” Ed said he should walk home.” Ed said he ought to walk home.” Ed said he would walk home.” Ed said he used to walk home.” Ed said he should have walked home.” Ed told me to walk home. He told me not to take a cab.” Ed asked (me) if / whether I walked home?” Ed asked (me) why I had walked home?”