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THE FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION

THE DYNAMIC NATURE OF THE EMOTION-COGNITION LINK IN

TRAPSHOOTING PERFORMANCE

by

LUIS MANUEL SANTOS CALMEIRO

A dissertation submitted to the

Department of Educational Psychology and Learning Systemsin partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the degree of

Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Awarded:

Fall Semester 2006


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The Dissertation Committee approves the dissertation of Luis Manuel Santos

Calmeiro defended on August 8, 2006.

________________________

Gershon TenenbaumProfessor Directing Dissertation

________________________

K. Anders Ericsson

Outside Committee Member

________________________Robert Eklund

Committee Member

________________________

David Eccles

Committee Member

________________________Jeannine Turner

Committee Member

Approved:

_____________________________________________________________________Gary Peterson, Chairperson, Department of Educational Psychology and Learning

Systems

The Office of Graduate Studies has verified and approved the above named committee

members.


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To my parents, Andr and Alice, who showed me the meaning of hard work and

unconditional love.

Thank you.

To my dearest wife, Nannette, and to my little princess, Sofa Victoria.

With love.

Thank you.


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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

It is with considerable astonishment that I find myself writing these last lines. It

seems almost impossible that so many mountains had to be climbed and so many

obstacles had been left behind. It is with surprise, and also satisfaction, that I find myself

at the end of this stage of my academic experience asking more questions, and having

more doubts than before. These last lines do not represent the end of a stage, but rather

the beginning of a new challenging one. And for this, I can only be grateful to those who

pushed me further, who taught me not to accommodate and feel comfortable with what

we know.

I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my major professor, Dr. Gershon

Tenenbaum, for his professionalism, dedication and commitment. Thank you for

encouraging me to give one step further. Your high expectations, attention to detail and

enthusiasm were moving and inspirational.

To Dr. Ericsson, who introduced me to verbal protocols, and contributed to this

investigation with very sensitive and thought provoking feedback.

To Dr. Eklund for his availability to discuss my random thoughts and for helping

me deal with my doubts using problem- focused and emotion-focused coping. Thanks for

sharing a whole breadth of knowledge that went beyond the classroom.

To Dr. Eccles for his enthusiasm and remarkably pragmatic advice at all stages of

this investigation.

To Dr. Turner for her full support, encouragement, trust in my skills and shedding

the light all the way through my journey in the qualitative realm.

To all committee members for their promptness in reading this dissertation in a

short period of time.

To Dr. Reiser, who was so kind to participate actively during an earlier phase of

my project.

To Dr Jeong for guiding me through the explorations of the Data Analysis Tool.

To Dr. Duarte Arajo and Dr. Antnio Palmeira for their contribution as judges of

the coding system.

To Andr, the best research assistant I could have wished for.


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To Dr. Burton, who provided me the chance to take the first steps as a graduate

student in the USA, and for his support throughout my stay at the University of Idaho.

Many thanks to the athletes who participated in this study for their cooperation.

Their endeavor was not less Herculean than mine. It took a lot of effort and commitment

to simultaneously compete and comply with the research procedures.

Thanks to Colleen and Bob Eklund for their friendship and generous help with

other tasks of life. Sofia Victoria surely appreciates it at least as much as I do.

To Itay Basevitch and Dina Mortagne for their encouragement, feedback on my

presentation, and help in formatting the final document-but most of all, thank you for

your friendship.

I would also like to express my gratitude for the support of so many other friends

who, in one way or another, shared my experiences, supported me and contributed for my

personal growth. To Liberto, Sofia, Catita, Greg, Silvia and Alexandre, Vicente and

Patricia, Isaac and Ana, Silvia, Pablo, Elmer, Dan, Austin. Your friendship is highly

valued and will always be treasured.

To my family, parents, brothers, nephews and nieces who, back home, always had

faith in me and had me in their hearts.

To my wife, Nannette, for her patience and love, particularly when stress was

appraised as threat and coping appeared to be ineffective.

To Sofa Victoria for her refreshing and invigorating smile.

Finally, one last note to state that my doctoral studies were sponsored by the

Fundao para a Cincia e a Tecnologia, a governmental institution of the Portuguese

Ministrio da Cincia, Tecnologia e Ensino Superior, who awarded me with a very

prestigious scholarship. For that, I present my sincere gratitude.


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TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES ......................................................................................................................... ix

LIST OF FIGURES......................................................................................................................... x

ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................. xii

INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................................... 1

Need for the Study........................................................................................................................... 1

Statement of Purpose and Research Questions................................................................................ 3

LITERATURE REVIEW................................................................................................................ 4

Definition of Emotion ..................................................................................................................... 4

Differentiation of Affective Phenomena..................................................................................... 4

Positive Emotions and Negative Emotions................................................................................. 6

Emotion and Cognition ................................................................................................................... 8

Bowers Associative Network Theory........................................................................................ 8

The Affect-as-information Hypothesis ..................................................................................... 10

Cognitive-motivational-relational Theory of Emotion.................................................................. 12

Primary and Secondary Appraisals ........................................................................................... 12

Coping....................................................................................................................................... 14

The Study of Optimal Emotions in Sport ...................................................................................... 16

The Individual Zones of Optimal Functioning Model .............................................................. 17

Affect Performance-related Zones ............................................................................................ 25

Integrative Approach to the Emotion-cognition Link in Sport Performance ................................ 27

Appraisals of Threat and Challenge and Emotions................................................................... 28

Emotion Regulation and Coping............................................................................................... 31

The Role of Coping................................................................................................................... 31

Mediating Cognitive Processes of Emotional States Effects on Performance......................... 35

Cognitive and Physiological Correlates of Marksmen Performance............................................. 37

METHODS.................................................................................................................................... 41

Sampling........................................................................................................................................ 41

Instrumentation.............................................................................................................................. 43

Demographic Information Questionnaire ................................................................................. 43

The Affect Grid (Russell, Weiss & Mendelsohn, 1989) ........................................................... 43


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Performance Measures.............................................................................................................. 45Shot outcome ........................................................................................................................ 45Perceived performance periods............................................................................................. 45

Heart rate (HR).......................................................................................................................... 45

Delayed Retrospective Recalls.................................................................................................. 46

Task........................................................................................................................................... 48

Procedure .................................................................................................................................. 49

Data Analysis ............................................................................................................................ 51

RESULTS...................................................................................................................................... 56

Intra-individual Data ..................................................................................................................... 56

Participant 1 (H)........................................................................................................................ 56Affect dimensions and performance ..................................................................................... 57Heart rate (HR) patterns........................................................................................................ 61Verbal reports ....................................................................................................................... 64

Participant 2 (A)........................................................................................................................ 71Affective dimensions and performance ................................................................................ 71Heart rate (HR) patterns........................................................................................................ 74Verbal reports ....................................................................................................................... 77

Participant 3 (J) ......................................................................................................................... 82Affect dimensions and performance ..................................................................................... 82Heart rate (HR) patterns........................................................................................................ 86Verbal reports ....................................................................................................................... 86

Participant 4 (L) ........................................................................................................................ 92

Affect dimensions and performance ..................................................................................... 92Heart rate (HR) patterns........................................................................................................ 95Verbal reports ....................................................................................................................... 99

Participant 5 (B) ...................................................................................................................... 101Affect dimensions and performance ................................................................................... 101Heart rate (HR) patterns...................................................................................................... 105Verbal reports ..................................................................................................................... 108

Participant 6 (V)...................................................................................................................... 114Affective states and performance ....................................................................................... 114Heart rate (HR) patterns...................................................................................................... 118Verbal reports ..................................................................................................................... 121

Group Analysis............................................................................................................................ 127

Antecedents of Threat and Challenge ..................................................................................... 129

Coping with Threat and Challenge ......................................................................................... 129

The Role of Appraisals and Affective States in Performance Shifts ...................................... 130

Perceived Performance Periods............................................................................................... 136

Skill-Level............................................................................................................................... 138


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DISCUSSION ............................................................................................................................. 142

Fluctuation of Athletes Affective States During Performance................................................... 143

Fluctuation of Affective States as a Function of Performance Periods................................... 145

Fluctuation of Affective States as a Function of Shot Outcome............................................. 147

Performance Shifts .................................................................................................................. 148

Appraisals and Coping within Different Performance States...................................................... 150

Antecedents of Threat and Challenge ..................................................................................... 150

Coping with Threat and Challenge ......................................................................................... 155

Cognitive Appraisals and Coping as a Function of Perceived Performance Periods.............. 158

Cognitive-emotional Processes Across Skill-level...................................................................... 164

Fluctuation of Athletes HR during Performance........................................................................ 167

CONCLUSIONS ......................................................................................................................... 174How do Affective States Fluctuate During Performance? .......................................................... 174

How do athletes appraise and cope with different performance states?...................................... 175

How do cognitive-emotional processes differ in elite and non-elite athletes during different

performance qualities? ................................................................................................................ 175

How do athletes heart rate (HR) patterns as a function of performance quality? ...................... 176

Conceptual and Research Implications ....................................................................................... 176

Implications for Practice.............................................................................................................. 179

Limitations................................................................................................................................... 179

Future Directions......................................................................................................................... 181

APPENDIX A. Demographic Information Questionnaire .......................................................... 183

APPENDIX B. The Affect Grid.................................................................................................. 184

APPENDIX C. Human Subjects Committee Approval............................................................... 185

APPENDIX D. Informed Consent .............................................................................................. 186

APPENDIX E. Verbal Protols ofH(Participant 1)..................................................................... 187

APPENDIX F. Verbal Protols ofA (Participant 2) ..................................................................... 197

APPENDIX G. Verbal Protols ofJ(Participant 3) ..................................................................... 205

APPENDIX H. Verbal Protols ofL (Participant 4)..................................................................... 210

APPENDIX I. Verbal Protols ofB (Participant 5) ...................................................................... 214

APPENDIX J. Verbal Protols ofV(Participant 6)...................................................................... 224

REFERENCES............................................................................................................................ 232

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH....................................................................................................... 245


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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1 Temporal patterns of different affective phenomena (adapted from Vallerand, R.,

& Blanchard, C. (2000). The study of emotion in sport and exercise: historical, definitial,

and conceptual perspectives. Yuri L. Hanin (Ed.), Emotions in Sport. (pp.3-38).Champaign: Human Kinetics). ........................................................................................... 6

Table2 Summary of appraisals, coping cognitive-affective states and antecedent eventsduring the two competitions of participant H. .................................................................. 65

Table 3. Transitional probabilities and frequency matrices during (a) non-critical,

and (b) critical performance periods for shooter H. ........................................................ 68Table 4 Summary of appraisals, coping cognitive-affective states and antecedent

events during the two competitions of A. .......................................................................... 78

Table 5 Transitional probabilities and frequency matrices during (a) non-criticaland (b) critical performance periods for A. ...................................................................... 80

Table 6 Summary of appraisals, coping cognitive-affective states and antecedent

events during Js competition. .......................................................................................... 90Table 7 Transitional probabilities and frequency matrices during Js critical periods. .. 91

Table 8 Summary of appraisals, coping cognitive-affective states and antecedentevents during Ls competition. .......................................................................................... 98

Table 9 Transitional probabilities and frequency matrices during Ls critical periods. 993Table 10 Summary of appraisals, coping cognitive-affective states and antecedent

events during the two competitions of B. ........................................................................ 109

Table 11 Transitional probabilities and frequency matrices during Bs criticalperiods...............112

Table 12 Summary of appraisals, coping cognitive-affective states and antecedent

events during the two competitions of V. ........................................................................ 122Table 13 Transitional probabilities and frequency matrices for Vs critical moments. . 125

Table 14. Transitional probabilities and frequency matrices: group level. ................... 128Table 15. Summary of coping strategies after threat and challenge appraisals for

each athlete. .................................................................................................................... 130

Table 16.Performance shift, antecedent events, thoughts and cognitive-emotionalstates for each athlete. .................................................................................................... 132

Table 17.Relative and absolute frequencies of antecedents of negative and positive

performance shifts, and associated cognitive-affective states. ....................................... 135

Table 18 Transitional probabilities and frequency matrices during (a) non-criticalperformance periods and (b) critical performance periods. .......................................... 136

Table 19. Transitional probabilities and frequency matrices during critical

performance periods for (a) elite and (b) non-elite athletes........................................... 139


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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. Multidimensionality of a systems description of performance psychobiosocialstates and emotion-performance relationship (Hanin, Y. (2000b) Individual Zones of

Optimal Functioning (IZOF) Model: Emotion performance relationships in sport. InY.Hanin (Ed.), Emotions in Sport. (pp.65-89). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics)........... 19

Figure 2. Profile of individual zones of optimal functioning (Hanin, Y. (2000b)Individual Zones of Optimal Functioning (IZOF) Model: Emotion performancerelationships in sport. In Y.Hanin (Ed.), Emotions in Sport. (pp.65-89). Champaign, IL:

Human Kinetics). .............................................................................................................. 21Figure 3. Probabilistic approach to the Individual Zones of Optimal Functioning (Kamata

et al., (2002). Individual Zones of Optimal Functioning (IZOF): A Probabilistic

Estimation. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 24, 189-208). ............................ 26Figure 4. Integrative model of cognitive-emotional-relation theory of emotion and affect-

related performance zones in sport. .................................................................................. 28

Figure 5. Fluctuations in (a) pleasure and arousal dimensions of affect, and (b) perceivedperformance for each shot during the six sets of the first competition, forH. ................. 58

Figure 6. Fluctuations in (a) pleasure and arousal levels, and (b) perceived performancefor each shot during the six series of the second competition, forH................................ 59

Figure 7. Means and standard deviations of pleasure and arousal levels ofHas a functionof (a) perceived performance periods, and (b) shot outcome. .......................................... 60

Figure 8. HR during aim and pull phases during (a) first, and (b) second

competitions ofH.............................................................................................................. 62Figure 9. HR at aim and pull as a function of (a) shot outcome (i.e., miss and hit),

and (b) perceived performance, forH............................................................................... 63

Figure 10. State transitional diagrams for participantHduring (a) optimal performanceand (b) poor performance periods..................................................................................... 69

Figure 11. Fluctuations of (a) pleasure and arousal levels and (b) perceived performancefor each shot during the eight sets ofAs competition...................................................... 72

Figure 12. Pleasure and arousal levels ofA as a function of (a) perceived performance

periods, and (b) shot outcome........................................................................................... 73Figure 13. HR during aim and pull phases forA....................................................... 75

Figure 14. Means and standard deviations of HR at aim and pull as a function of (a)

shot outcome (i.e., miss and hit), and (b) perceived performance, for participantA........ 76

Figure 15. State transitional diagrams of event sequences during (a) non-critical, and (b)critical performance periods ofA...................................................................................... 81

Figure 16. Fluctuations in (a) pleasure and arousal levels and (b) perceived performance

for each shot during the six series of the competition, forJ. ............................................ 83Figure 17. Pleasure and arousal levels ofJas a function of (a) perceived performance

periods, and (b) shot outcome........................................................................................... 85

Figure 18.Js HR during aim and pull phases of shot execution.............................. 87Figure 19. HR at aim and pull as a function of (a) shot outcome (i.e., miss and hit),

and (b) perceived performance periods, forJ. .................................................................. 88

Figure 20. State transitional diagram duringJs critical performance periods. ............... 91

Figure 21. Fluctuations of (a) pleasure and arousal levels (b) and perceived performance

for each shot during the six sets ofLs competition. ........................................................ 93


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Figure 22. Pleasure and arousal levels ofL as a function of (a) perceived performance

periods, and (b) shot outcome........................................................................................... 94Figure 23. HR during aim and pull phases duringLs competition. ......................... 96

Figure 24. HR at aim and pull as a function of (a) shot outcome (i.e., miss and hit),

and (b) perceived performance, forL. .............................................................................. 97

Figure 25. State transitional diagram of event sequences during critical performanceperiods ofL. .................................................................................................................... 100

Figure 26. Fluctuations of (a) pleasure and arousal levels (b) and perceived performance

for each shot during the six set of the first competition, forB........................................ 102Figure 27. Fluctuations of (a) pleasure and arousal levels and (b) perceived performance

for each shot during the six series of the second competition, forB. ............................. 103

Figure 28. Pleasure and arousal levels ofB as a function of (a) perceived performanceperiods, and (b) shot outcome......................................................................................... 104

Figure 29. HR during aim and pull phases during (a) first, and (b) second

competitions of participantB. ......................................................................................... 106Figure 30. HR at aim and pull as a function of (a) shot outcome (i.e., miss and hit),

and (b) perceived performance, forB. ............................................................................ 107Figure 31. State transitional diagram forB during critical moments. ............................ 112

Figure 32. Fluctuations of (a) pleasure and arousal levels and (b) perceived performancefor each shot during the six sets ofVs first competition................................................ 115

Figure 33. Fluctuations of (a) pleasure and arousal levels and (b) perceived performance

for each shot during the six sets ofVs second competition. .......................................... 116Figure 34. Pleasure and arousal levels ofVas a function of (a) perceived performance

periods, and (b) shot outcome......................................................................................... 117

Figure 35. HR during aim and pull phases during Vs second competition............ 119Figure 36. HR at aim and pull as a function of (a) shot outcome (i.e., miss and hit),

and (b) perceived performance, for participant V. .......................................................... 120Figure 37. State transitional diagram forVduring critical moments. ............................ 126

Figure 38. State transitional diagram for event sequences based on group data

encompassing all athletes................................................................................................ 128Figure 39. State transitional diagrams for all athletes during (a) non-critical performance,

and (b) critical performance periods. .............................................................................. 137

Figure 40. State transitional diagrams for (a) elite and (b) non-elite athletes, during

critical performance periods. .......................................................................................... 140


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ABSTRACT

Emotion constitutes a fundamental dimension of human lives, determining the

quality of life experiences, and organizing and guiding perceptions, thoughts and actions.

Emotion is thought to interact with cognition to influence behavior in a variety of

settings. Researchers in sport psychology are currently paying increased attention to the

role of emotion in sport performance. The emotion-cognition link is a promising

approach to the study of the mechanisms through which affective experiences in sport

emerge and are associated with performance. However, researchers need to advance the

study of emotions to include ecologically valid methods that can tap into the cognitive-

affective experience of athletes during an actual competition.

The purpose of the present study is to describe the emotion-cognition link during

a series of trapshooting competitions, utilizing an ideographic and longitudinal approach.

Specifically, four main questions ere addressed: (a) How do athletes affective states

fluctuate during performance, and how do they vary when they perform optimally and

non-optimally? (b) how do athletes appraise and cope with different performance states?

(c) how do cognitive-emotional processes differ in elite and non-elite athletes during

different performance qualities? and (d) do athletes heart rate (HR) patterns differ when

performing optimally and non-optimally?

Two elite and four non-elite trapshooters, ages ranging from 21 to 58 years,

participated in this study. Trapshooting competitions last two days and generally consist

of six sets of twenty five targets each. To measure affective states during competition,

participants completed the Affect Grid after each target during one or two competitions.

The Affect Grid is a 9 x 9 grid where athletes mark a specific square corresponding to a

given pleasure and arousal levels. During competition, they also wore a Polar S810i heart

rate (HR) monitor to record HR during aiming and pull stages of the shot. After, each

set participants answered a retrospective delayed verbal protocol to describe thoughts and

emotions during critical and non-critical periods of performance. Athletes verbal reports

were coded and analyzed according to a coding scheme, which was based on Lazarus

(1999) Cognitive-motivational-relational (CMR) theory of emotion. The categories were:

(a) threat appraisals, (b) challenge appraisals, (c) predominantly problem-focused coping,

(d) predominantly emotion-focused coping, and (e) withdrawal coping. Intra-rater


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reliability reached an agreement rate of 90.8%, and inter-rater reliability reached a value

ofkappa = .91.

Fluctuations of affective states during performance were limited. More skilled

athletes showed a more stable pattern of affective states than less skilled athletes.

Fluctuations of affective states were associated with subjective evaluation of

performance. In the majority of participants, pleasure and arousal were higher after hit

targets and during non-critical performance periods than before misses and during critical

performance periods, respectively. However, considerable individual variability was

observed.

Data from verbal protocols was analyzed for event sequences using the Data

Analysis Tool (DAT; Jeong, 2003) to calculate the probability of pairs of events

occurring. Event sequences were analyzed as a function of perceived performance

periods: non-critical periods, consisting of good or easy performance periods, and critical

periods, consisting of periods of poor or difficult performance. Athletes perceived more

threat when experiencing critical performance periods, utilized more emotional-focused

coping during these periods, which were associated to negative emotions. Withdrawal

was utilized under conditions of decreased likelihood of personal goal attainment, and

was associated with negative emotions. Problem-focused coping was utilized more often

during non-critical periods than during critical periods, and were associated with feelings

of control and confidence. After missed targets, emotion-focused coping strategies were

more directed towards venting of emotions, and self-blame. After hit targets, athletes also

used emotion-focused coping, but with the purpose of reassuring themselves that all was

well. Interestingly, this last function of coping was more often utilized by elite athletes

during critical periods. These results confirm other studies in which athletes engage in a

variety of coping strategies. However, this study provides evidence that this variability is

a consequence of the individuals relational meaning of an encounter, as athletes utilized

different strategies as a function of situational constraints.

Compared with non-elite athletes, elite athletes were more likely to deal with

threat appraisals by using a variety of emotion-focused coping and problem-focused

coping. Elite athletes emotion-focused strategies were more directed towards accepting

responsibility and distancing. Perhaps as consequence, these athletes also used more


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sequences of problem-focused coping after emotion-focused coping than non-elite

athletes. These results are consistent with the concept that experts are better self-

regulators than non-experts.

There was a pattern of a marked decrease of HR, or less marked increase of HR,

from aiming to pull before hits and during non-critical performance periods. This is

consistent with findings of decreased HR before trigger pull in pistol and riffle shooting

due to higher attentional focus on external stimuli and/or decreased cognitive

interference. HR was also higher before hit targets and non-critical periods for some

athletes, which may represent better readiness for action. However, considerable

variability existed in terms of direction and magnitude of the differences, indicating

diverse individual needs.

This study represents an idiographic account of the dynamic nature of the

emotion-cognition link during performance. Considerable variability was observed which

reinforces the need for considering the individuals phenomenological experience during

the evolving context of stressful sport competitions. These experiences are more likely to

be captured by studying athletes adaptational encounters with methods and in contexts of

high ecological validity.


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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Emotion constitutes a fundamental dimension of human lives, determining the

quality of life experiences, and organizing and guiding perceptions, thoughts and actions

(Plutchik, 2003). The relevance of emotion to a variety of psychological and

physiological processes, and behaviors is currently recognized (Damsio, 1994;

Goleman, 1995; Hackfort & Schlattmann, 1991; Hackfort & Schwenzmezger, 1993).

The study of emotion in sport is also currently receiving increased attention (e.g.,

Hanin, 2000a). Performance-related emotions have an important role in sport

participation. Not only do emotions influence the degree of involvement, but they also

impact performance, especially in conditions of high competitive stress (Hanin, 1997).

The study of athletes affective responses to competition has largely been limited to the

performance-anxiety relationship, and has focused mainly on pre-competitive anxiety

(e.g., Burton, 1988; Martens, Vealey, & Burton, 1990; Woodman & Hardy, 2001).

Failing to consider a wider range of emotions limits our full understanding of the

athletes competitive experiences (Cerin, Szabo, Hunt, & Williams, 2000). In the last

decade, sport psychology researchers began studying emotions such as guilt, shame, fear,

hope, eagerness, disappointment and exhilaration (Cerin, 2003; Hanin, & Syrjia, 1995a,

1995b). Furthermore, attention is being given to how emotions interact to influence

performance (Lazarus, 2000a), how affective states change throughout competition

(Kamata, Tenenbaum & Hanin, 2002), how athletes regulate their affective states as they

operate under different affective states (Johnson, 2000), and how affectivity interacts

with cognitive processes to influence performance (Janelle, 2002; Mellalieu, 2003).

Need for the Study

This study expands knowledge on the emotion-cognition link in sport by

examining simultaneously athletes cognitive processes and affective states fluctuations

during a series of competitive events. With the findings of this study researchers can shed

light on how cognitive-affective states change when performance quality shifts. These

findings are valuable for practitioners who wish to develop more efficient interventions,

and for researchers to further develop dynamic concepts of the affect-cognition linkage to

performance.


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Researchers have focused mainly on pre-competitive emotions (Hanin, 1997) and

emotional consequences of performance. Only recently have researchers sought to

measure actual affective states as experienced during competition (e.g., Johnson, 2000;

Kamata et al., 2000). Furthermore, studies assessing athletes thoughts on-line during an

actual competition are scarce. For this reason, the retrospective recall procedure utilized

in this dissertation was innovative. Interviews with participants occurred immediately

after athletes performances and elicited specific thoughts athletes remembered having

while performing.

In addition, factors that induce changes in performance and competitive

cognitive-affective states are considered in this study. Utilizing Lazarus (1991; 1999)

Cognitive-Motivational-Relational Theory as a conceptual framework, this study

contributes to the understanding of how cognitive appraisals, coping and affect relate to

each other on a dynamic and interdependent way. Analyzing how athletes continuously

appraise ongoing competitive situations (e.g., threat, challenge) may facilitate the

prediction of affective consequences and understanding of coping mechanisms.

The determination of the cognitive events that induce specific appraisals, which

may lead to the experience of functional or dysfunctional affective states, has relevant

practical implications. Athletes may more easily identify situations prone to change their

emotions, and consequently their performance. Athletes can more rapidly identify the

presence of such antecedents, anticipate possible consequences, and more readily

mobilize the necessary resources to respond appropriately. Sport psychologists need to

consider each athletes optimal emotional states and know what events are likely to

facilitate being in-the-zone or out-of-the-zone, so that interventions can focus on

athletes unique characteristics.

Lazarus (1999) model also integrates the concept of coping, and considers two

main categories of coping strategies: problem-focused coping and emotional-focused

coping. This study contributes to determining which coping strategies athletes use when

they are experiencing different types of performing quality. It also identifies which

coping strategies athletes use when different appraisals of the competitive situations are

made. This information has important implications. First, athletes can become aware of

their preferred coping strategies, as well as their efficacy in different competitive


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situations. Second, it can be useful to help athletes to expand their coping repertoires to

maximize their ability to promote reversals in emotional states, and maintain high levels

of performance.

Finally, to the best of the authors knowledge, this study was the first to

incorporate both quantitative and qualitative methods for studying the impacts of

emotions on cognitions during an actual competition. Heart rate as a measure of

attentional selectivity was also considered. Utilizing a mixed method allows triangulation

of evidence to complement and surpass existing limitations in measuring on-line

emotional changes in the sport field.

Statement of Purpose and Research Questions

The purpose of the present study was to examine the dynamic nature of

performance-related affective states and cognitive processes in elite and non-elite trap

shooters. This investigation was a field study based on analysis of case studies. The

research aims to answer the following questions:

1. How do athletes affective states fluctuate during performance, and how do

athletes affective states vary as a function of performance quality?

2. How do athletes appraise and cope with different performance states?

3. How do cognitive-emotional processes differ in elite and non-elite athletes

during different performance qualities?

4. Do athletes heart rate (HR) patterns differ as a function of performance

quality?


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CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

This section presents relevant literature concerning the emotion-cognition link

and performance. Beginning with issues pertaining tothe definition and classification of

emotions, theoretical models that help guide planning and designing of this research are

also discussed.

Definition of Emotion

The concept of emotion remains to be consensually defined. The language of

emotion is often ambiguous, and its definition has been inconsistent, being frequently

confused with other affective phenomena (Plutchik, 2003; Vallerand & Blanchard, 2000).

The range of emotion definitions represents the variability of existing theoretical

frameworks. Lazarus (1991) and Ben-Zeevs (2000) definitions seem to be

comprehensive and useful to understand the mechanisms through which emotions guide

perception, thought, and action. Lazarus defines emotion as a complex disturbance that

includes three main components: subjective affect, physiological changes related to

species-specific forms of mobilization for adapted action, and action impulses having

both instrumental and expressive qualities. Ben-Zeev considers that emotions are

concerned with issues of survival and social status and that they direct and color our

attention by selecting what attracts and holds our attention, facilitating the regulation of

priorities and the communication of intentions.

These definitions fit the purposes of the present study. Emotions adaptational

role to stressful contexts, such as a competitive event, implies a continuous appraisingof

the context and influences the type of information heeded to guide action.

Differentiation of Affective Phenomena

Emotion is frequently confused with other concepts which, in turn, are often used

interchangeably. Therefore, it is important to differentiate among affective phenomena,

such as affects, emotions, moods, emotional traits and temperaments (Vallerand &

Blanchard, 2000).Affectis a broad concept that encompasses all other affective

phenomena. It can be a temporary state or a trait-like disposition, and usually does not

include physiological arousal or facial/bodily expressions.Emotions imply a sudden and

brief response to an object or a stimulus leading to distinct physiological, experiential,


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and behavioral changes. Physiological and neurological patterns, subjective feelings and

facial/bodily expressions elicited by emotions are highly specific (Levenson, 1992;

Levenson, Ekman & Friesen, 1990).

Moods are more diffused subjective states that last longer than the previously

characterized affective phenomena. Physiological changes and facial expressions that

characterize emotions are absent in moods. Moods do not have a direct relationship with

a specific object or stimulus (Vallerand & Blanchard, 2000). They exert an influence on

the individual by producing temporary changes to the threshold of occurrence of

emotional responses. These thresholds are established by affective traits and are

perceived at a more or less conscious level (Rosenberg, 1998). Affective traits include:

(1) emotional traits, which consist in the individuals tendency to experience certain

emotions or moods and are subject to environmental influence; and (2) temperament,

which are innate dispositions determining these tendencies (Vallerand & Bouchard,

1999).

The different affective phenomena can be analyzed according to a Hierarchical

Model of Affective Organization (Rosenberg, 1998). Affects are organized in levels. A

levelis defined as a unit of organization that refers to the hierarchical arrangement of

concepts or structures. Rosenberg divides the affective phenomena into three levels based

on the influence that each level exerts on the other: affective traits, moods, and emotions.

Affective traits are the highest organizational level in the hierarchical model.

They are stable predispositions toward certain types of emotional responses; they

establish a threshold of occurrence of an emotional response. They reflect individual

differences in emotional reactivity. An individual who has a hostile trait (affective trait) is

more likely to show a congruent emotion in a given situation, such as anger, than another

individual who possesses a less hostile trait. Therefore, affective traits influence how

congruent moods and emotions are expressed and experienced through a background

influence on consciousness, for which individuals are not always aware.

According to Rosenberg (1998), it is more likely that moods exert an

organizational influence on emotions than the opposite. Similar to affective traits, moods

determine the threshold of occurrence of a given emotion. However, while affective traits

determine this threshold in an enduring manner, moods can alter them temporarily. In a


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given moment, an individual can be more or less susceptible of presenting an emotion.

These influences depend to some degree on the affective phenomena temporal patterns

(see Table 1). Traits are the more enduring affective phenomena, while moods and

emotions are transient states. Although the temporal patterns do not fully explain the

differences between affective phenomena, its conceptualization allows more objectivity

while distinguishing these concepts (Vallerand & Blanchard, 2000).

Table 1

Temporal patterns of different affective phenomena (adapted from Vallerand, R., &

Blanchard, C. (2000). The study of emotion in sport and exercise: historical, definitial,and conceptual perspectives. Yuri L. Hanin (Ed.), Emotions in Sport. (pp.3-38).

Champaign: Human Kinetics).

Time

Phenomena

Seconds Minutes Hours Days Weeks Months Years Life

Emotions

Moods

Emotional Traits

Temperaments

Positive Emotions and Negative Emotions

Central to the current study of emotions in sport is the differentiation of emotions

as positive (e.g., pride, pleasure) and negative (e.g., anxiety, anger) (Cerin et al.,

2000; Hanin, 2000; Skinner & Brewer, 2004). This classification is frequently based on

its hedonic tone (i.e., pleasant vs. unpleasant). Therefore, positive emotions are

mistakenly thought to be good or desirable, while negative emotions are thought to be

bad or undesirable (Plutchik, 2003). However, such categorization does not have a

functional basis. Emotions motivate, organize and guide perception, thought, and action

mobilizing rapidly our energy towards a behavioral purpose; therefore, all emotions play

an adaptive role in human life and from that point of view are essentially positive

(Plutchik, p.8).


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Emotions such as anxiety should be understood not only as having an

undermining effect in performance, but also as a process of adaptation to specific events

or a motivating factor for a particular action. Carver and Scheiers (1988) control process

model of anxiety and performance holds that anxiety can have both facilitative and

debilitative effects on performance depending on subjects expectancy of being able to

cope with anxiety and complete the action. Jones and colleagues demonstrated that high

skilled swimmers (Jones, Hanton & Swain, 1994) and cricketers (Jones & Swain, 1995)

interpret both cognitive and somatic anxiety symptoms as more facilitative to

performance than debilitative. Swimmers who had positive expectancies of goal

attainment interpreted anxiety as more facilitative than swimmers who had negative

expectations of goal attainment (Jones & Hanton, 1996). Cognitive anxiety could

improve motivation and facilitate an appropriate attentional focus (Jones, Swain &

Hardy, 1993).

Positive or pleasant emotions are believed to have a role of enlarging the

behavioral and thought repertoire to face a given situation (Frederickson, 1998). A wider

repertoire allows the individuals to create and develop new solutions, as well as, improve

personal resources. Such improvement is a result of the expansion of several processes:

(1) attentional focus, which favors obtaining larger amounts of information and

developing a global contextual perspective of the situation;

(2) cognitive processes, which facilitates the association between thoughts and

ideas, and the utilization of processing information strategies; these can be

utilized in a more flexible, integrated and diverse manner, leading to

improvement of creative thought.

(3) action possibilities, by inducing unusual and diverse responses that add to

subjects personal resources.

(4) intellectual resources, because pleasant emotions promote task involvement,

which in turn facilitates learning and mastery;

(5) social resources through the development of a social network as the result of

sharing pleasant experiences with others.

It is plausible that these processes are also relevant in sport performance. For

example, stress was proposed to induce changes of psychological and physiological


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activation, which affects the width of attentional field, level of distractibility, amount of

investment in controlled processing and efficiency of attentional processing (Janelle,

2002). Deficient decision-making under stressful conditions was partly due to subjects

failure to systematically consider all relevant alternatives (Keinan, 1987). However, how

these processes change as a function of other emotions, whether positive or negative, to

influence sport performance is still unknown.

The concept of hedonic tone has a central role in the present study. By identifying

patterns of variability in pleasantness and unpleasantness throughout competition, and

linking it to objective and perceived performance, athletes verbal reports and

physiological markers of attentional processes, it is expected that knowledge concerning

mechanisms through which affect influences performance will be better understood.

Emotion and Cognition

Several models of emotion and cognition have been developed in the last two

decades. All share similarities, but they differ in the extent they explain different aspects

of the emotion-cognition relationship, such as information storage and retrieval,

attribution or judgmental heuristics, capacity and strategies of information processing,

and decision making and creative thinking (Forgas, 1991; Fiedler, 2001).

Bowers Associative Network Theory

The associative network theory describes memory as a network of nodes

representing concepts, ideas, events, or propositions (Bower, 1981). Memory occurs

when activation of one or more nodes spread within this network and activates other

related nodes. These can become primed, as subjects are often unaware of the concept

that originally spread the activation (Barry, Naus & Rehm, 2004).

Emotions are memory units linked to the memory system (Bower, 1981), which

facilitate access to mental representations associated with targets of judgment (Forgas,

1991). Due to prior associations, innate and learned environmental situations activate

particular emotion nodes stored in memory. This activation spreads throughout neuronal

circuits to mental representations of events associated with that emotion influencing

encoding and retrieval of material as well as the valence of judgments of people, events,

objects, and behaviors (Bower, 1991). Emotions are activated by repeated experience or

by activating any of their links (Barry et al., 2004). The stronger the activation of


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particular emotional nodes is, the greater the mood-congruent effect. According to this

affect-priming model, an emotion node spreads activation throughout the memories to

which it is connected, increasing the chance that those memories will be retrieved

(Bower, 1981).

By the same token, the accessibility of information for judgment is biased by

mood, creating mood-congruent judgments. Subjects who were videotaped in a social

interaction task categorized ambiguous gestures, speech acts, intonation, and body

language in a mood-congruent way (Forgas, Bower, & Krantz, 1984). Also, happy

subjects made faster positive rather than negative judgments about the character of an

individual. The inverse pattern was observed in sad subjects (Forgas & Bower, 1987).

The affect-priming model (Bower, 1981) can help understand how emotions arise

and influence performance. For example, current emotional states facilitate access to

associated mental representations of concepts, images and actions, which are the base for

subsequent interpretations of contextual factors and ambiguous stimuli (affect-congruent

associations). A competitive situation can be categorized as a threat because it shares

similar features with a past threatening situation. Rather than on-line appraisals of the

new situation, reinstatements of prior appraisals from earlier situations can reactivate

earlier experiences together with their emotional significance (Clore & Ortony, 1999).

Subjects who were induced anxiety remained risk averse in an advantageous gamble

situation. Even though they thought they could win, these subjects choose risk avoidance

alternatives (Schwarz & Clore, 1983).

Athletes may also selectively pay attention to cues that are congruent with current

affective states. Compared with low-trait anxious subjects, high-trait anxious subjects

exaggerate distress by reporting disproportionately greater concerns than actual problems.

Such discrepancy is explained by biased processing of internal sources of information

(Calvo & Eysenck, 1998). This attentional bias may increase vulnerability to anxiety

because they affect the extent to which stimuli and events are processed (Mathews &

McLeod, 2002). Depressed and sad individuals are directed inward, demonstrating low

external engagement (Yovel & Mineka, 2005), failing to consider relevant environmental

cues.


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Bowers (1981) model further explains that (1) the retrieval of information is

facilitated when context during retrieval elicit the same emotional states experienced

when encoding (affect-state dependence), and that (2) information consistent with the

prevailing mood should be better learned due to the greater availability of related mood-

consistent associations (affect-congruent memory). These hypotheses also have

implications for sport. The emotional conditions in which athletes practice should match

the conditions of competition, in order to facilitate learning and retrieval of strategies.

Furthermore, this model also justifies the need for self-regulation. Athletes who are able

to regulate their emotional states in terms of their idiographic profile of negative and

positive emotions (Hanin, 2000b) are more likely to optimize emotion functionality in

performance by facilitating retrieval of relevant information, optimal attentional focus,

and functional associative and interpretational effects of the current situation.

The Affect-as-information Hypothesis

According to this model, individuals utilize their emotional states to evaluate

their reactions to a situation, object or person. The affect-as-information hypothesis

(Schwarz & Clore, 1983) holds that affects have an informational value about the nature

of subjects current psychological situation, which is associated with different states of

action readiness. According to this model, people simplify judgmental tasks by using a

How do I feel about it? heuristic (Schwarz, 2001; Schwarz & Bless, 1991). Positive

mood states indicate that the world is safe and no action is necessary, whereas negative

mood states indicate a problematic situation that needs to be changed. Affective reactions

to evaluative targets result in more positive judgments under happy moods and negative

judgments under sad moods. Negative moods are more likely to trigger attributional

activity and direct attention to the source of such moods. That is, subjects tend to explain

more often their sad moods than their happy moods, engaging in more causal reasoning.

The motivation to change requires more elaboration and attention to specific information

of the current situation (e.g., assessment of current features, analysis of causal links,

exploration of mechanisms of change, anticipation of potential outcomes), requiring

higher cognitive capacity as it competes with demands of other cognitive tasks.

In contrast, positive affective states do not pose threat, allowing the subject to

engage in heuristic processing through the use of routines and general knowledge


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structures. The use of general structures has the advantage of serving as energy-saving

devices (Bless, 2001, p.12) as they are based on heuristics, schemas, and stereotypes.

Attentional processing is allocated differently and cognitive resources are spared to meet

additional processing required by other tasks.

Mood effects in judgments are more likely when they are misattributed, that is,

when subjects misread feelings that were elicited by other causes as affective reactions

to the object of judgment, resulting in more positive evaluations in the presence of

positive rather than negative feelings (Schwarz & Bless, 1991, p. 57). When the source

of moods is correctly attributed (e.g., weather conditions) mood effects tend to disappear

(Schwarz & Clore, 1983). Also, in conditions of information uncertainty (e.g., when

outcomes of comparable others are unknown), justice judgments are influenced by

affective states in the direction predicted by the mood-as-information model. However,

when relevant information is available mood effects disappear (van den Bos, 2003).

Therefore, mood congruency effects and judgments will decrease if people become aware

of mood-eliciting events as causes for current affective states or if they have other

diagnostic information available (Gendolla, 2000).

This model has two consequences for athletic performance. On one hand, it

indicates the importance of self-awareness. Correctly identifying ones affective states to

specific sources under given circumstances may allow athletes to predict and control the

impact of dysfunctional emotional states. This will prevent misattributions and harmful

effects of emotions in performance. On the other hand, athletes can be trained to interpret

their dysfunctional emotions as triggers for active coping. Subjects experiencing negative

emotional states are more willing to modify their information processing when prior

processing is ineffective, especially when feedback is evident (Kaufmann & Vosburg,

1997).

The affect-as-information hypothesis can also help to understand why the concept

of hedonic tone (i.e, unpleasant or negative vs. pleasant or positive) is independent on the

concept of functionality. For example, an excessive happy mood may hinder

performance, as athletes tend to analyze competitive situations in a superficial mode,

engage in sloppy decision-making, and choose poor solutions. Similarly, a neutral, or


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somewhat negative emotional state (i.e., moderate anxiety), may enhance performance, as

athletes assess situations in a realistic, careful, and vigilant mode.

On the other hand, when experiencing flow states, emotions may allow athletes to

perform in an automatic manner, liberating cognitive resources for problems raised by the

competition. In this case, positive affective states may allow attentional resources to be

directed externally (e.g., the environment) as opposed to internally (i.e., to the self)

(Sedikides & Green, 2002). Focusing on internal cues is associated with decreased heart

rate variability representing difficulty in selective attention or increased cognitive

workload (Abernethy, Summers & Ford, 1998). The ability to maintain vigilance and

proper attention selectivity has been shown to be a determinant psychological skill in

marksmen (e.g., Janelle, 2002; Tremayne & Barry, 2001).

Therefore, this model is relevant for the present study as it provides a plausible

explanation for the link between dysfunctional, or optimal emotions, and directing

attention to internal, or external cues, respectively. This attentional selectivity as result of

affective states, interferes with availability of cognitive resources and performance.

Cognitive-motivational-relational Theory of Emotion

The Cognitive-motivational-relational (CMR) theory of emotion (Lazarus, 1999)

holds that emotions result from subjects relational meaning of an encounter. People

evaluate the significance of an encounter in terms of their own motives and beliefs.

Therefore, cognitions and motivations play a critical role in the subjects interaction with

the environment. This interaction is interpreted in terms of its impact on subjects well

being. People make decisions based on an evaluation or appraisal process, through which

the transaction is judged to be essential in maintaining, enhancing, or hindering ones

well being. A central notion in Lazarus model is the concept of stress. When subjects

perceive that there is something of adaptational importance at stake, that the transaction

encompasses risk taking, stress develops and subjects engage in appraisal processes.

Emphasis is also placed on adaptational coping as subjects act on or reframe the person-

environment relationship.

Primary and Secondary Appraisals

Lazarus describes two types of appraisal (Lazarus, 1999): primary and secondary

appraisals. Primary appraisal consists of judgments concerning the relevance of what is


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happening in the transaction to ones values, goal commitments, beliefs about self and the

world, and situational intentions. According to Clore and Ortony (1999) appraisals are

built by assembling interpretation of data from the perceived world (p. 29). People are

constantly appraising situations for personal relevance through online computation of

whether these situations are or are likely to be good or bad, and, if so, in what way

(Clore & Ortony, p.29).

Three primary appraisal components are goal relevance, goal congruence and type

of ego involvement. Without important personal goals at stake, or core values threatened,

stress will not occur and emotions will not develop. Goal congruence refers to whether

the conditions of a transaction frustrate the person desires. Positive emotions arise in the

presence of favorable conditions, but negative emotions follow under unfavorable ones.

Finally, type of ego involvement refers to commitments that can be thought of as goals. It

means that the person will strive hard to achieve something personally valuable in spite

of adversities. Social and self-esteem, moral values, ego ideals, meanings and ideas, own

and others well-being and life goals are main goals that constitute the core of ego

involvement and shape emotions (Lazarus, 1999).

When the transaction is perceived as a condition of stress, appraisals of threat,

challenge, harm/loss may develop. Threatconsists in the possibility of future damage

occurring as a result of a given outcome from the transaction. Challenge is perceived

when people feel excited or enthusiastic about the struggle to overcome the obstacles

posed by the transaction.Harm/loss consists of the perception of damage that has already

occurred.

Secondary appraisal refers to a cognitive-evaluative process that is focused on

what can be done about a stressful transaction. This type of appraisal refers to subjects

evaluation of such factors as agency, future expectancies, and coping options. Agency

leads to attributions of blame or credit for an outcome. Therefore, it requires an

evaluation of responsibility for a threat, challenge, harm/loss or benefit, shaping

positively or negatively toned emotions. Perception of control and intentionality are also

relevant issues pertaining to the attribution of blame or credit. An outcome that could not

be avoided, or was unintentional, may moderate these appraisals.


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Secondary appraisals are the cognitive underpinning for coping but not the coping

itself. Subjects ask themselves whether they can act successfully to transform or

eliminate a harm or threat, or complete a challenge or achieve a benefit. They evaluate

their coping potential and what do they expect as the outcome of that encounter. If a

situation is perceived as imposing excessive demands on subjects resources, it will lead to

threat; however, if subjects believe they have developed sufficient skills to deal with the

situation, challenge will more likely develop. At the same time, subjects develop future

expectation for the outcome of a transaction. Subjects evaluate whether the person-

environment relationship will change for the better or for worse.

The definition of appraisals as primary or secondary is based on content

rather than timing. Primary appraisal does not necessarily come first, operates

independently, or is more important than secondary appraisal. Primary appraisal refers to

an evaluation of whether the current transaction is worthy of the subjects attention, while

secondary appraisal focuses on what can be done to cope. This perspective suggests an

active interplay between these concepts rather two separate constructs.

Appraisals may change as the stress encounter unfolds. For example, uncertainty

plays a major role in determining the meaning of the person-environment relationship.

Because threat and challenge emotions are anticipatory, appraisals about an ambiguous

future can lead to the experience of positive and negative emotions (Folkman & Lazarus,

1985). An ambiguous situation occurs when the outcome is uncertain and positive or

negative outcomes can be expected. As situations become less ambiguous, the outcome is

clearer and harm and benefit appraisals are experienced.

Coping

Another central concept in Lazarus (1999) CMR theory is coping. Coping refers

to constantly changing cognitive and behavioral efforts to manage specific external

and/or internal demands that are appraised as taxing or exceeding the resources of the

person. Thus, coping is an ongoing process that takes into account the fit between what

one does, the requirements of the conditions being faced, and ones individual needs

(Lazarus, 1999, p. 80). Lazarus considers that good coping consists of choosing the most

adequate strategy. This often involves being flexible to abandon a previously effective

strategy, that is ineffective in the current transaction.


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According to Lazarus (1999), coping has two major functions. The first function

of coping is to address the problem causing distress, while the second major function is to

ameliorate the emotional experience associated with the distress. The first is called

problem-focused coping, in which a person obtains information about what to do and

mobilizes actions for the purpose of changing the reality of the troubled person-

environment relationship (p.114). The second function is named emotion-focused coping

that aims at regulating the emotions tied to the stress situation without changing the

realities of the stressful situation (p.114). Endler and Parker (1990) added avoidance-

copingas another dimension, which was defined as an individuals decision to withdraw

from a particular stressful task or to engage in another activity.

A stressful encounter is dynamic and unfolds over time. Therefore, coping

becomes a complex process, as subjects tend to use combinations of problem-focused and

emotion-focused coping throughout the phases of the encounter (Carver & Scheier,

1994). Students utilized predominantly problem-focused coping and emphasized the

positive before taken an exam, but distancing was more prominent while waiting for the

grades. Students who received poorer grades reported using more emotion-focused

coping than students who did well on an exam (Folkman & Lazarus, 1985).

Appraisals and coping should be considered as a unit in the study of emotions

(Lazarus, 1999). In order for a coping response to be executed, one has to first evaluate

what is at stake (i.e., primary appraisal) and whether one can handle the situation (i.e.,

secondary appraisal). On the other hand, good coping processes can influence and change

appraisals and the nature of the transaction. As a threatening person-environment

relationship is reappraised, a new relational meaning of the stressful encounter is

constructed (Folkman & Lazarus, 1990) and different emotions may arise. Appraisal and

coping variables, together with GPA explained 48% of the variances of threat and

challenge before the exam. Controlling for grade received, appraisals and coping

explained 28% of positive and negative emotions after grades were announced (Folkman

& Lazarus, 1985).

Crocker and Isaak (1997) noticed different coping patterns for young swimmers

when training and competing. With the exception of active coping, swimmers showed a


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lack of consistency in coping during meets as opposed to training sessions the week after

each meet, which may represent different situational demands or ego-involvement.

Because appraisals and coping are so closely interrelated, it is surprising that

research has looked at these concepts separately. Coping appears to have attracted

researchers attention more than cognitive appraisals. Lazarus (1999) called for the need

to correct this conceptual limitation in the study of emotions. In the last few years, a

number of studies in sport have followed this challenge (e.g., Kim & Duda, 2003;

Gaudreau, Blondin& Lapierre, 2002; Ntoumanis & Biddle, 1998). The current study also

strives to approach appraisals and coping as interdependent factors. Studies using mental

arithmetic tasks concluded that appraisals of threat and challenge influence physiological

and cognitive responses (Tomaka, Blascovich, Kelsey & Leitten, 1993; Tomaka,

Blascovich, Kibler & Ernst, 1997). These responses together with task outcome predict

post-task reappraisals (Quigley, Barret & Weinstein, 2002). The present study aims at

understanding of the processes underlying cognitive appraisals and coping interactively

as a series of competitive events develop, and how these processes relate to current

affective states.

The Study of Optimal Emotions in Sport

At an earlier stage, research on emotions in sport focused mainly on the study of

antecedents and consequences of performance anxiety (e.g., Burton, 1988; Martens,

Vealey, & Burton, 1990; Woodman & Hardy, 2001). However, the study of emotions has

been receiving more attention in the sport psychology domain (Cerin et al., 2000;

Mellalieu, 2003). In the seventies, research using the Profile of Mood States (POMS;

McNair, Lorr & Droppelman, 1971) constituted the first systematic effort to study a

broader range of moods, and the POMS continues to be widely used (LeUnes, 2000).

According to Morgan s (1985) mental health model, ideal performance occurs when

athletes have an optimal profile, the iceberg profile, characterized by scores below the

population norm on negative mood scales (i.e., tension, depression, anger, fatigue, and

confusion), and scores above the population norm on the positive mood scale (i.e., vigor).

However, this model has been criticized for being developed within clinical contexts and

almost exclusively focusing on negative emotions (Hardy, Jones, & Gould, 1996). The

iceberg profile has been unable to distinguish between successful and less successful


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performers (e.g., Rowley, Landers, Kyllo, & Etnier, 1995). Furthermore, a causal

direction between this profile and performance can be confounded by other variables

(e.g., athletes skill-level) (Prapavessis, 2000).

In the last decade, the flow model (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990) has been

systematically applied to sports to describe peak experiences (Jackson &

Csikszentmihalyi, 1999; Jackson & Roberts, 1992). Although it is not a model of

emotional states, it deals with an important aspect of the sport experience by focusing

study upon episodes eliciting intense positive feelings. However, this model is also

limited in scope because it considers only one portion of athletes experiences, as athletes

not only experience a variety of negative emotions but also often perform without

experiencing flow.

Another model that has been receiving researchers attention is the Individual

Zones of Optimal Functioning (IZOF; Hanin, 1997, 2000b; Hanin & Syrjia, 1995a; Hanin

& Syrjia, 1995b). The IZOF model incorporates positive and negative emotions to

describe the emotion-performance relationship. The IZOF model has received

methodological criticism regarding establishment of the zones and its deterministic

approach to the emotion-performance relationship. Building on these weaknesses,

Kamata et al. (2002) recently developed a probabilistic approach. This section is devoted

the description of the basic concepts of the IZOF model, its research implications and

constructive criticism. The IZOF is fundamental for understanding the development of

the Affect-related Performance Zones, which have major theoretical and research

implications.

The Individual Zones of Optimal Functioning Model

The IZOF (Hanin, 1997, 2000b) model represents an advancement in theory and

applied research in sport psychology because it was developed in the naturalistic setting

of elite sport and expands the traditional study of anxiety-performance relationships (e.g.,

ZOF) to include other relevant positive and negative emotions. Furthermore, the model

attempts to predict successful and unsuccessful performances based on pre-competitive

emotional states and previously determined criteria of emotional profiles drawn from

individual past experiences (Hanin, 1997, 2000b, 2000c). IZOF is an ideographic model

of the emotion-performance relationship as opposed to traditional nomothetic approaches.


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It emphasizes an intra-individual analysis of athletes emotional experiences related to

successful and poor performances. The definition of the zones considers the personal

meaning of each athletes emotional experience.

In the following sections, the basic tenets of this model are presented: the

psychobiosocial framework for the study of the emotion-performance relationship, the

concept of emotional content, and the concept of in-and out of the zones are described.

Research focusing on IZOF is critically reviewed and recent developments of this model

are presented.

Multidimensional nature of the emotion-performance relationship. Hanins (1997,

2000b) model encompasses five descriptive dimensions of a performance state: form,

intensity, content, time, and context. These dimensions provide a framework for

describing the factors that affect individual performance as depicted in Figure 1.

The form dimension includes the cognitive, affective, motivational, bodily-

somatic, motor-behavioral, performance and communicative components of human

functioning. The influence of emotion on performance is considered here by analyzing

the subjective affective experiences and its relationship with other modalities of the

psychobiosocial state. The intensity dimension represents the quantification of affect and

it is measured by self-report ratings on specified emotions. The concept of in-out of the

zone results from the conceptualization of this dimension. The content dimension

conceptualizes emotional experiences in terms of hedonic tone or positivity-negativity.

According to the IZOF, emotions can be categorized as positive-negative, optimal-

nonoptimal, facilitative-debilitative, or task relevant-irrelevant. The time dimension

reflects the dynamic nature of emotionality. It considers the study of emotions in different

moments in time (i.e., before, during, or after an event) or the characteristics of the task

in terms of duration (i.e., short or long), and frequency (i.e., single or repeated task).

Finally, context represents the characteristics of the environment, and considers the

situational, interpersonal, intra-personal, and cross-cultural antecedents and

consequences, which influences emotional intensity and content.


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Figure 1. Multidimensionality of a systems description of performance psychobiosocial

states and emotion-performance relationship (Hanin, Y. (2000b) Individual Zones of

Optimal Functioning (IZOF) Model: Emotion performance relationships in sport. In

Y.Hanin (Ed.), Emotions in Sport. (pp.65-89). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics).

Emotional content. The emotional content is conceptualized in two dimensions:

hedonic tone (i.e., pleasant-unpleasant) and functionality (i.e., helpful-harmful). Positive

and negative emotions are assessed separately and fluctuate along an intensity continuum,

ranging from low to high intensity.

The functionality dimension considers that emotions, whether they are positive or

negative, can have a detrimental or a beneficial effect on performance depending on the

individual-context interaction. A negative emotion such as anxiety may not be always

detrimental to performance. Under certain circumstances athletes can perceive it as

essential for optimal performance (Jones, 1995; Jones & Hanton, 1996; Jones & Swain,

1995). The concept of zone of optimal functioning was proposed in an attempt to

determine an optimal intensity range for emotions, in which best performances will more

likely occur (Hanin, 2000b, 2000c). Therefore, emotional content consists of four

categories as a result of the combination of two independent dimensions of emotions:


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positive optimal emotions (P+), positive dysfunctional emotions (P-), negative optimal

emotions (N+) and negative dysfunctional emotions (N-).

These categories are relevant for the description of athletes affective experiences,

as they represent athletes relevant emotions before, during and after a competition.

Therefore, this model assumes a high degree of interindividual variability in the

intensity and content of idiosyncratic optimal and dysfunctional emotions accompanying

successful and poor performances (Robazza, Pellizari, Hanin, 2004, p. 381).

In-and-out of the zone. The concept of zone is utilized to assess, predict and

optimize athletes performance, and it reflects the dynamic nature of the emotion-

performance relationship. Because it is an ideographic model, the zones are derived from

empirical data obtained from each athlete in competition. Zones of optimal and

dysfunctional intensities for each facilitative and debilitative emotions are identified.

Hence, performance is related to the combined influences of optimal and

dysfunctional emotions. After identifying positive (P+ and P-) and negative (N+ and N-)

emotions experienced during their best performance, athletes rate the intensity

experienced for each emotion (1 = minimum, 10 = maximum). This information is

graphed as depicted in Figure 2. Dysfunctional emotions are placed at the extremities of

the graph and functional emotions are placed at the middle. Therefore, athletes optimal

emotional profile has a similar shape to Morgans (1985) iceberg profile: high levels of

optimal emotions, whether they are positive (P+) or negative (N+), and low levels of

dysfunctional emotions (N- and P-). For refining this profile, a number of evaluations of

optimal performances should be conducted, until a pattern of relationship has emerged

and zones are evident. In the example given below, an athletes best performances are

associated with moderate-to-high levels of fury and moderate levels of tension (N+

emotions), high levels of determination and eagerness (P+ emotions), low levels of

slackness, laziness and tiredness (N- emotions) and low-to-moderate levels of calmness,

content and pleasantness (P- emotions).


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Figure 2. Profile of individual zones of optimal functioning (Hanin, Y. (2000b)

Individual Zones of Optimal Functioning (IZOF) Model: Emotion performance

relationships in sport. In Y.Hanin (Ed.), Emotions in Sport. (pp.65-89). Champaign, IL:Human Kinetics).

Best performances should occur when combined maximum enhancing and

minimum impairing effects are observed (Robazza, et al., 2004), that is, when facilitating

emotions are in the optimal zone and dysfunctional emotions are far from the debilitating

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