2009 Prentice Hall, Inc. Todos los derechos reservados.7*RESULTADOS DEL APRENDIZAJE Describir qu variables del cambio puede controlar un gerente. Identificar las fuerzas internas y externas que propician el cambio. Explicar cmo pueden los gerentes ser agentes del cambio. Comparar las metforas de las aguas tranquilas y de las aguas turbulentas que se refieren el cambio. Explicar por qu las personas se resisten al cambio. Describir las tcnicas para disminuir la resistencia al cambio.Despus de leer este captulo, usted podr:

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2009 Prentice Hall, Inc. Todos los derechos reservados.7*RESULTADOS DEL APRENDIZAJE (cont.) Sealar el significado del trmino desarrollo organizacional (DO) y exponer cuatro tcnicas populares de ste. Explicar las causas y los sntomas del estrs. Sealar la diferencia entre creatividad e innovacin. Explicar cmo puede la organizacin estimular las innovaciones.Despus de leer este captulo, usted podr:

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2009 Prentice Hall, Inc. Todos los derechos reservados.7*Qu es el cambio?CambioUna modificacin en el entorno, la estructura, la tecnologa, o en el personal de una organizacin.Una fuerza constante.Una realidad organizacional.Una oportunidad o una amenaza.Agente de cambioPersona que inicia un cambio en la organizacin y que asume la responsabilidad de manejarlo.

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2009 Prentice Hall, Inc. Todos los derechos reservados.7*Estructura Relaciones de autoridad. Mecanismos de coordinacin. Rediseo de empleos. Tramo de control.Tecnologa Procesos de trabajos. Mtodos de trabajo. Equipo.Personal Actitudes. Expectativas. Percepciones. Comportamiento.

Tres categoras para el cambio

2009 Prentice Hall, Inc. Todos los derechos reservados.

2009 Prentice Hall, Inc. Todos los derechos reservados.7*Fuerzas para el cambioFuerzas externas Competencia en el Mercado.Leyes y regulaciones gubernamentales.Nuevas tecnologas.Cambios en el mercado laboral.Cclos en la economa.Cambio social.Fuerzas internasModificaciones de la estrategia.Nuevo equipo.Nuevos procesos.Composicin de la fuerza laboralReestructuracin de puestos.Prestaciones y compensaciones.Reducciones y excedentes de trabajo.Actitud de los empleados.

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2009 Prentice Hall, Inc. Todos los derechos reservados.7*Dos visiones del proceso de cambioMetfora de las aguas quietasDescripcin de las teoras y las prcticas tradicionales de la organizacin, que la equipara con un gran navo que est haciendo una travesa proyectada, navegando por aguas quietas, con alguna tormenta ocasional.Metfora de las aguas turbulentasDescripcin de la organizacin como una pequea balsa que surca un ro turbulento.

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2009 Prentice Hall, Inc. Todos los derechos reservados.7*Pasos en la administracin del cambio

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2009 Prentice Hall, Inc. Todos los derechos reservados.7*El cambio en las aguas quietasProceso de tres pasos de Kurt LewinDescongelarLa fuerza motriz, que dirige el comportamiento lejos del statu quo, puede incrementarse.La fuerza restrictiva, la cual obstruye el movimiento del equilibrio existente, puede disminuirse.Los dos enfoques se pueden combinar.Implementacin del cambioRecongelarEstablecer un nuevo estado de equilibrio.

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2009 Prentice Hall, Inc. Todos los derechos reservados.7*El cambio en las aguas turbulentasEl cambio es una constante en un entorno dinmico.La nica certeza es la incertidumbre continua.Las ventajas competitivas no duran.Los gerentes deben reaccionar rpida y apropiadamente ante eventos no esperados.Alertas ante los problemas y las oportunidades.Deben convertirse en agentes de cambio y estimular, implementar y apoyar el cambio en la organizacin.

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2009 Prentice Hall, Inc. Todos los derechos reservados.7* Temor ante lo desconocido.

Resistencia personal.

Pensar que el cambio no es bueno para la organizacin.

Temor a perder algo valioso.Por qu la gente se resiste al cambio

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2009 Prentice Hall, Inc. Todos los derechos reservados.7*Tcnicas para reducir la resistencia al cambioEducacin y comunicacin.Participacin.Facilitacin y apoyo.Negociacin.Manipulacin y cooptacin.Coercin.

2009 Prentice Hall, Inc. Todos los derechos reservados.

2009 Prentice Hall, Inc. Todos los derechos reservados.7*Los cambios en la organizacin

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2009 Prentice Hall, Inc. Todos los derechos reservados.7*Implementacin del cambio planeadoDesarrollo organizacional (DO)Actividad (intervencin) diseada para facilitar el cambio planeado a largo plazo en toda la organizacin.Gira en torno a las actitudes y los valores de los miembros de la organizacin.En esencia, es un esfuerzo para cambiar la cultura de una organizacin.

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2009 Prentice Hall, Inc. Todos los derechos reservados.7*Tcnicas tpicas de DO

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2009 Prentice Hall, Inc. Todos los derechos reservados.7*El estrs: una secuela del cambio en la organizacinEstrsPeso o influencia que siente una persona cuando se encuentra ante oportunidades, impedimentos o exigencias, que percibe como importantes e inciertos.Estrs positivo: cuando la situacin ofrece la oportunidad de sacar algn provecho.Estrs negativo: cuando impone restricciones o exigencias a las personasEstresanteFactor que causa estrs.

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2009 Prentice Hall, Inc. Todos los derechos reservados.7*Fuentes de estrsImpedimentosObstculos que no nos permiten hacer lo que queremos.Inhibe a los individuos en formas que quitan de sus manos el control de una situacin. ExigenciasProvoca que las personas renuncien a algo que desean.Puede ocupar su tiempo y obligar a elegir prioridades.

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2009 Prentice Hall, Inc. Todos los derechos reservados.7* Personales Tipo de personalidad. Cuestiones familiares. Problemas econmicos.

En la organizacin Ambigedad en las funciones . Conflicto de funciones. Demasiado peso de la funcin. Adelantos tecnolgicos. Reingeniera de procesos, reduccin de tamao. Reestructuracin.Principales estresantes

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2009 Prentice Hall, Inc. Todos los derechos reservados.7*Factores de estrs organizacional

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2009 Prentice Hall, Inc. Todos los derechos reservados.7*Estresantes organizacionales: roles exigentesConflicto de la funcinExpectativas laborales difciles de conciliar o satisfacer.Exceso peso de la funcinSe presenta cuando se espera que el empleado haga ms de lo que le permite el tiempo.Ambigedad de funcionesOcurre cuando el empleado no ha entendido con claridad las expectativas de su funcin.

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2009 Prentice Hall, Inc. Todos los derechos reservados.7*Factores personales: tipos de personalidadPersonalidad tipo A Personas que tienen la sensacin crnica de urgencia y un impulso excesivo por competir.

Personalidad tipo BPersonas relajadas y tranquilas, que aceptan bien los cambios.

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2009 Prentice Hall, Inc. Todos los derechos reservados.7*Sntomas de estrsSntomas psicolgicosAumento de la tensin.Ansiedad.Aburrimiento.Apata.Sntomas relacionados con el comportamientoCambios en los hbitos de comer.Incremento en el fumar.Consumo de drogas.Hablar rpido.Desorden del sueo.

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2009 Prentice Hall, Inc. Todos los derechos reservados.7*Cmo reducir el estrsPreocupacin porque el empleado encaje en su puestoHacer que los empleados coincidan con sus puestos, clarificar las expectativas, redisear los puestos, y aumentar la participacin y entrega de los empleados.Programas de ayuda a los empleados (PAEs)Programas que ofrecen las organizaciones para ayudar a sus empleados a superar problemas personales y de salud.Programas de bienestarProgramas que ofrecen las organizaciones para ayudar a sus empleados a prevenir problemas de salud.

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2009 Prentice Hall, Inc. Todos los derechos reservados.7*Cmo estimular la innovacinCreatividadCapacidad para producir ideas singulares o poco comunes.InnovacinProceso para tomar una idea creativa y convertirla en un producto, servicio o mtodo de operacin tiles.PercepcinIncubacinInspiracinInnovacin

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2009 Prentice Hall, Inc. Todos los derechos reservados.7*Variables que estimulan la innovacin

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2009 Prentice Hall, Inc. Todos los derechos reservados.7*Variables estructurales que afectan la innovacinEstructura orgnicaInfluye positivamente en la innovacin a travs de menos especializacin laboral, menos reglas y con estructuras ms bien descentralizadas que mecanicistas. Acceso fcil a recursos Permite a la gerencia adquirir innovaciones, resistir el costo de implantarlas y absorber los fracasos. Comunicacin frecuente entre las unidadesContribuye a derribar las barreras que podran entorpecer la innovacin, porque facilita la interaccin que trasciende las fronteras de los departamentos.

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2009 Prentice Hall, Inc. Todos los derechos reservados.7*Caractersticas de una cultura innovadoraAceptacin de la ambigedad.Tolerancia a lo poco prctico.Pocos controles externos. Tolerancia al riesgo.Tolerancia al conflicto. Enfoque en los fines y no en los medios.Enfoque de un sistema abierto.

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2009 Prentice Hall, Inc. Todos los derechos reservados.7*Variables de RH que afectan la innovacinPrcticas de RH que fomentan la innovacinPromover activamente la capacitacin y desarrollo de los empleados, de modo que su conocimiento permanezca actualizado.Ofrecer a los empleados gran seguridad de empleo. para as reducir el miedo a ser despedidos por cometer errores.Alentar a los empleados a volverse paladines del cambio.

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Todos los derechos estn reservados. Ninguna parte de la publicacin puede reproducirse, registrarse o transmitirse en forma alguna ni por medio alguno, sea electrnico, mecnico, fotoqumico, grabacin o cualquier otro, sin el permiso previo por escrito del editor.

Copyright 2009 Pearson Educacin, Inc. Publicado como Prentice Hall.

****Change is an alteration of an organizations environment, structure, technology, or people. Because change is an organizational reality, handling it is an integral part of every managers job.People who are the catalysts for change and manage the change process are change agents. A manager may be a change agent. However, the change agent can be a nonmanagerfor example, an internal staff specialist or outside consultant. Management often uses outside consultants because they can offer a fresh perspective which insiders lack. But, they may not understand the organizations history, culture, operating procedures, and personnel. Furthermore, outside change agents often initiate more drastic changes because they do not have to live with the repercussions after the changes have been implemented.

*The external forces of change come from various sources. In recent years, the marketplace has affected firms by introducing new competition. Bell Atlantic, for example, is experiencing competition from cable companies to provide local phone service. Government laws and regulations are also an impetus for change. In 1990 the passage of the Americans with Disabilities Act required businesses to widen doorways, reconfigure restrooms, add ramps, and take other actions to improve accessibility. Technology causes change. E-commerce and the Internet have changed how we sell products and access information.Economic changes affect almost all organizations. Dramatic decreases in interest rates in the late 1990s fostered significant growth in the housing market. This meant more jobs, more people working, and more sales for other businesses that support the building industry. Internal forces originate from the operations of the organization or from the impact of external changes: such as management redefining its strategies, new equipment in workplace, and demographic changes in the organizations workforce. These forces lead to changes in the policies and practices of management.

*Two metaphors exemplify the process of change:The calm waters metaphor likens the organization to a large ship making a predictable trip across a calm sea and experiencing an occasional storm. The white water rapids metaphor likens an organization to a group of strangers on a small raft navigating the uninterrupted white water rapids of an unfamiliar river to an unknown destination in the dark of night.

**Until recently, the calm waters metaphor dominated the thinking of practicing managers and academics. Kurt Lewins three-step description of the change process epitomizes this metaphor.According to Lewin, successful change requires unfreezing the status quo, changing to a new state, and refreezing the change to make it permanent. The status quo represents a state of equilibrium that must be thawed in one of three ways for change to occur:1.The driving forces which direct behavior away from the status quo can be increased.2.The restraining forces which hinder movement from equilibrium can be decreased.3.The two approaches can be combined.In the relatively calm environment of the 1950s through the early 1970s, Lewins model may have been workable. Given chaotic change and the global village, however, this metaphor is outdated.*The white water rapids metaphor reflects uncertain, dynamic environments. The concepts of stability and predictability are relics of days gone by. Disruptions in the status quo are no longer occasional and temporary, only to be followed by smooth sailing and halcyon days. Many managers today never get out of the rapids. They face constant, wrenching change that boarders on chaos. These managers are playing a game that they have never played before that is governed by rules which are created as the game progresses. Few organizations today can treat change as the occasional ripple in a still pool. Too much is changing too fast! Complacency is a luxury because most competitive advantages last less than eighteen months. According to Tom Peters, the old saying, If it aint broke, dont fix it is no longer relevant. In its place, he suggests If it aint broke, you just havent looked hard enough. Fix it anyway. Peters observation is consistent with current reengineering trends. And, the quantum changes required to remain competitive in the global marketplace cannot be overstated.

***The term organizational development refers to a collection of techniques for understanding, changing, and developing work force effectiveness: process consultation, survey feedback, team building, and intergroup development.

**Stress is a force or influence that a person feels when facing opportunities, constraints, or demands which are important yet uncertain. Stress can be positive in a situation that offers an opportunity for gain. But, stress is most often associated with constraints (barriers that keep someone from doing what he or she wants) and demands (things that take up someones time and require the person to shift priorities). Furthermore, when constraints or demands have an effect on an important event and the outcome is unknown, pressure is addedpressure resulting in stress.

*Stress can be positive in a situation that offers an opportunity for gain. But, stress is most often associated with constraints (barriers that keep someone from doing what he or she wants) and demands (things that take up someones time and require the person to shift priorities). Furthermore, when constraints or demands have an effect on an important event and the outcome is unknown, pressure is addedpressure resulting in stress.

**Role conflicts create expectations that may be hard to reconcile or satisfy. Role overload occurs when an employee is expected to do more than time permits. Role ambiguity occurs when role expectations are not clearly understood, and the employee is not sure what he or she should do

*Some employees are more prone to stress. Consider the Type A-Type B personality dichotomy. Type A personalities are characterized by a chronic sense of urgency and an intense drive to compete. These ambitious, achievement oriented workers have difficulty accepting and enjoying leisure time. On the other hand, type B personalities are more relaxed and easy-going. Managers must recognize that Type A employees are more likely to show symptoms of stress, even if organizational and personal stress factors are low.

*Stress reveals itself psychological symptoms, such as boredom, anxiety, and procrastination; and behavioral symptoms, such as substance abuse sleep disorders, or excessive absence. Most of the early interest in stress management focused heavily on health-related or physiological concerns: changes in metabolism, elevated blood pressure, and increased risk of heart attacks. Many of these physiological concerns require the skills of trained medical personnel, so their immediate and direct relevance to HRM is negligible. Of greater importance to managers are psychological and behavioral symptoms of stress that can be witnessed in the employee.

*Without some stress, people would have no energy. Accordingly, stress reduction programs should target the dysfunctional aspects of stress. One way to reduce stress is to make sure that employees are properly matched to their jobs and that they know the extent of their authority. Furthermore, by letting employees know precisely what is expected, role conflict and ambiguity can be minimized. On-the-job stress can also be reduced by redesigning jobs and encouraging employee participation.Many companies have started employee assistance and wellness programs. An extension of substance abuse programs, employee assistance programs (EAPs) have focused on new areas, such as health care. Studies suggest that organizations can save $5 for every EAP dollar spent. Designed to keep workers healthy, wellness programs focus on weight control, stress management, or physical fitness. Studies show that such programs control health care costs and reduce health related absenteeism.

*Given the dynamics of the global marketplace, organizations must create new products and adopt new technologies. Creativity is the ability to combine ideas in a unique way or to make unusual associations between ideas. Creative organizations develop novel approaches or unique solutions to challenges and opportunities. Innovation is the process of turning a creative idea into a marketable product, service, or operating method. Innovative organizations channel creativity into useful outcomes. While some believe that creativity is inborn, others believe that creativity can be stimulated by using a fourfold process: perception, incubation, inspiration, and innovation. Moving from creative perception to reality is not automatic. Instead, ideas go through an incubation process. During incubation, employees collect, store, retrieve, study, and reshape data until they create something new. This process can take years. Inspiration occurs when all of your prior efforts successfully come together. Innovation means turning inspiration into a useful product, service, or methodology.

**Three sets of organizational variables stimulate innovation: structure, culture, and human resource practices. Structural variables affect innovation in three ways: (1) organic structures promote innovation, (2) plentiful resources stimulate innovation, and (3) effective communication overcomes barriers to innovation. All three require the commitment of top management.

*Innovative organizations encourage experimentation and risk-taking behavior by rewarding both successes and failures. Such organizations are likely to have the following seven characteristics:1. Acceptance of ambiguity 2. Tolerance of the impractical3. Low external controls4. Tolerance of risk5. Tolerance of conflict6. Focus on ends rather than on means7. Open systems focus*Innovative organizations train and develop their members to keep their knowledge, skills, and abilities current; offer job security rather than the fear of being fired to promote risk-taking; and encourage individuals to become champions of change. Once a new idea is developed, champions of change promote the idea and build support. Then, they overcome resistance to the idea and ensure that the innovation is completed. These persons are self confident, energetic, persistent, risk-takers. In addition, they have the decision-making discretion to induce and implement innovations.