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\ M X\ Klek-\tsaro-ma sil lek-ma sil seotxe-\riumako
Lek-Tsaro, the language of Rymako
uruwi
Kfhoe.ong-mebi-pelbeo txekiu
A complete grammar
28 May 2018
2
Dedicated to Isoraķatheð.
Branch: canonVersion: 0.1Date: 2017-09-12
(C)opyright 2017 Uruwi. See README.md for details.
| Contents
0.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1 Phonology and orthography 71.1 Phoneme inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71.2 Hacmisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81.3 Phonotactics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81.4 Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91.5 Vowel harmony . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91.6 Allophony . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91.7 The script of Lek-Tsaro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2 Syntax 152.1 Basic word order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152.2 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152.3 Multiple clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3 Nouns 173.1 Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173.2 Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173.3 Noun classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.3.1 Countable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183.3.2 Measurable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183.3.3 Uncountable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.4 Definiteness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183.5 Declension table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.5.1 Countable classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183.5.2 Measurable classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193.5.3 Uncountable classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.6 Pronouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203.6.1 Last-clause pronouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.7 Compounding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213.8 Possession . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4 Verbs 234.1 Aspect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244.2 Obliques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254.3 Conjunctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3
4 CONTENTS
4.4 Subordinate clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264.4.1 Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4.5 Comparatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274.6 Ditransitive-like constructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274.7 Transitivisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284.8 Clauses with nullary arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284.9 The copula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
5 Descriptors 315.1 Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
6 Tree mode 336.1 Activation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336.2 Branch-switching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336.3 Anaphoric pronouns in joiner clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336.4 Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336.5 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
7 Numerals 357.1 Single-digit numerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357.2 Numerals up to 19 · 17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357.3 Numerals up to 13 · 19 · 17 = 4199 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367.4 Numerals up to and including 4199 · (4199+ 1)/2 = 8817900 . . . . . 367.5 Higher numerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377.6 Cardinal and ordinal numerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
8 Derivational morphology 398.1 Abstraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398.2 Dematuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398.3 Verb-to-noun conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
9 Names 419.1 Nominal names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419.2 Clausal names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
10 Calendar 4310.1 Tides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4310.2 Months . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4410.3 Years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4410.4 Eras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4510.5 Subdivisions of the day . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
10.5.1 Traditional timekeeping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4510.5.2 Modern timekeeping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
11 Miscellanea 4711.1 Colour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4711.2 Transitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
0.1. INTRODUCTION 5
A Listings of programs 49A.1 workfiles/7/tides.sage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49A.2 workfiles/7/bins.pl6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50A.3 workfiles/7/conno.pl6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50A.4 workfiles/7/count-days.pl6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
B Arithmetic in base v 55B.1 Operations on small numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
B.1.1 Additions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55B.1.2 Subtraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55B.1.3 Determining parity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55B.1.4 Dividing by two . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55B.1.5 Multiplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
B.2 Operations on larger numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56B.2.1 Addition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
C Dictionary 59
0.1 | Introduction
6 CONTENTS
1 | Phonology and orthography
1.1 | Phoneme inventory
Table 1.1: The consonants of Lek-Tsaro.
Bilabial Alveolar Palatal Velar GlottalNasal m n ɲ ŋPlosive p b t d c ɟ k ɡ ʔFricative f s ʃ x(coarticulated) θx fx fʃAffricate ts tʃLateral fricative ɬApproximant ɹ j wLateral approximant lTrill r
Table 1.2: The vowels of Lek-Tsaro.
Spread Half-rounded Roundedi y ̜ yɯ u̜ uɛ œʌ ɔä
In addition to consonants and vowels, Lek-Tsaro has rod signals, represented bynumbers. Rod A is blue and held by one’s dominant hand and B is red and held byone’s non-dominant hand.
1. Rod A is raised to one’s chest, while B is pointed down.2. Rods A and B are crossed in the front.3. RodB is raisedupwards in front of thenondominant arm,while rodA is lowered.4. Rod A is pointed sideways near one’s nondominant arm, while rod B is lowered.5. Rods A and B are extended to the sides.
7
8 CHAPTER 1. PHONOLOGY AND ORTHOGRAPHY
6. Rods A and B are extended, facing forward.7. Rod A is raised forward, while B is pointed to the side.8. Rod B is raised forward, while A is pointed to the side.
Lowering both rods is interpreted as an absence of a rod signal.If theuse of rods are unavailable, thenumerals of thepositionsmaybepronounced.
1.2 | Hacmisation
Lek-Tsaro uses the hacm script with superscript letters to indicate phonemes notfound in Arka. The transcriptions can be found in Tables 1.3 and 1.4.
Table 1.3: The consonants of Lek-Tsaro.
Bilabial Alveolar Palatal Velar GlottalNasal m n ny ng
Plosive p b t d ty dy k g .Fricative f s x h(coarticulated) sh fh fx
Affricate ts txLateral fricative jApproximant r y wLateral approximant lTrill c
Table 1.4: The vowels of Lek-Tsaro.
Spread Half-rounded Roundedi iu io
ui u uo
e eo
oe oa
Rod signs are represented by the hacm digits ⟨1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8⟩ attached to theend of the verbs they encompass. Proper words are preceded by a backslash ⟨\⟩.
Vowels that are inferrable from context are sometimes omitted. For example, /ɹɛ-fan/ (to speak) is written ⟨refn⟩, but /ɹɛfin/ (to spread), which is less common, iswritten ⟨refin⟩, with the second vowel. Most of this grammar will leave all vowelswritten.
1.3 | Phonotactics
An onset consists of one of the following:
• any single consonant other than /l/ (the exceptions are ⟨lek⟩ [lɛk] and relatedwords),
1.4. STRESS 9
• any obstruent followed by an approximant other than /l/,• or any plosive followed by /r/,• or any nasal followed by /j/ or /w/.A nucleus consists of one vowel.A coda consists of one of the following:• nothing,• a nasal,• a voiceless plosive (excluding /ʔ/),• /ɹ/, /s/ or /l/
1.4 | Stress
Stress falls on the last syllable with a coda, or otherwise the second-to-last syllable.See table 1.5 for examples.
Table 1.5: Examples of stress locations.
Location of stressOrthography (# from last)masa 2na.in 1.uotulo 2kasnepiu 3
1.5 | Vowel harmony
For the purposes of vowel harmony, vowels are divided into front and back vowels./a/ is neutral. A root with neither front nor back vowels acts as if it has front vowels.
If by some odd chance aword has both front and back vowels, it is treated as eitherby random chance.
1.6 | Allophony
The following changes are made:
s → s ͎ (♦{w, j, u, y}) NB this is a whistled sibiliant.C1{n, ŋ}C2{k, ɡ} → ɴC2[+uv] [2 | #σ]
C1[+av] → C1[+rt][∑
n∈χn2 ∈ P
]
Some examples:
10 CHAPTER 1. PHONOLOGY AND ORTHOGRAPHY
• ⟨swit⟩ turning from turquoise to blue /swit/ [sw͎it]
• ⟨shinke⟩ does not go /θxinkɛ/ [θxiɴqɛ] because the number of syllables is even• ⟨na.in16⟩ but was waiting /naʔin{16}/ [ɳaʔiɳ{16}] because 12 + 62 = 37 is prime
1.7 | The script of Lek-Tsaro
Lek-Tsaro also uses its own script, inspired by one of Uruwi’s old childhood cyphers.The consonants within a word are divided into pairs (plus one single consonant
at the end if applicable). Thus, ⟨pungapoe-ra⟩ would have ⟨png pr⟩. These pairsthen get a glyph that combines the glyphs for their constituent consonants.
Table 1.6: Single consonants in the script.
P p T t K k S s F fN n M m H h Z sh Y yC c X x/j L l W w G gQ ng D d B b A fx I fh
E dy U ty R r O ny V .
The full table of consonant pairs can be found at tables 1.7 and 1.8. There are somegeneral rules:
• Double consonants get their single-consonant glyphs with a ring below.• p-coloured glyphs bear the characteristic middle bar of ⟨P⟩ ⟨p⟩ : P p +L l→ pl.
• k-coloured glyphs rest under the characteristic arrow of ⟨K⟩ ⟨k⟩ : K k +T t→ kt.
• t-coloured glyphs rest under the characteristic hilt of ⟨T⟩ ⟨t⟩ : T t +C c→tc.
• s-coloured glyphs bear the characteristic bar-and-circle of ⟨S⟩ ⟨s⟩ : S s +Bb→ sb.
• f-coloured glyphs bear the characteristic double-swash of ⟨F⟩ ⟨f⟩ : F f +Q ng → fng.
• m-coloured glyphs bear the characteristic brook of ⟨M⟩ ⟨m⟩ : M m +P p→mp.
• sh-coloured glyphs bear the characteristic arc of ⟨Z⟩ ⟨sh⟩ : Z sh +M m→shm.
• y-coloured glyphs rest under the characteristic triangle of ⟨Y⟩ ⟨y⟩ : Y y +G g→ yg.
• c-coloured glyphs rest under the characteristic overring of ⟨C⟩ ⟨c⟩ : C c +A fx → cfx.
1.7. THE SCRIPT OF LEK-TSARO 11
Table 1.7: Consonant pairs in the script.
P T K S F N M H Z Y C X LPTKSFNMHZYCXLWGQDBAIEUROV
• x-coloured glyphs rest to the left of the characteristic vertical line of ⟨X⟩ ⟨x⟩: X x +E dy → xdy.
• w-coloured glyphs are superimposed with a copy rotated either π or, in the caseof a few glyphs, π/2: W w +K k→ wk; W w +H h→ wh.
• d-coloured glyphs are superimposed with ⟨D⟩ ⟨d⟩ : D d +U ty → dty. Insome cases, the cross might be rotated π/4: D d +N n→ dn.
• b-coloured glyphs rest inside the characteristic room of ⟨B⟩ ⟨b⟩ : B b +Rr→ br.
• fx-coloured glyphs rest under the characteristic flare of ⟨A⟩ ⟨fx⟩ : A fx +V .→ fx..
• dy-coloured glyphs rest under the characteristic P-shape of ⟨E⟩ ⟨dy⟩ : E dy
+Z sh → dysh.• r-coloured glyphs rest to the left of the characteristic flare of ⟨R⟩ ⟨r⟩ : R r+O ny → rny.
12 CHAPTER 1. PHONOLOGY AND ORTHOGRAPHY
Table 1.8: Consonant pairs in the script.
W G Q D B A I E U R O VPTKSFNMHZYCXLWGQDBAIEUROV
• ny-coloured glyphs bear the characteristic inner circle of ⟨O⟩ ⟨ny⟩ : O ny +I fh → nyfh.
• If all else has failed, the two consonants are superimposed. The default order isthe same as the ordering used in table 1.6.
• In coloured-consonant pairs, the colourant is assumed to occur first unless theorder is switched by an order reversal mark.
• A negative-sloping mark below a glyph means that the order of consonants isswitched.
Thus in our case, we would have ⟨ ⟩. The next step is to add vowels. In ourcase, theywould be paired as ⟨u-a oe-a⟩. Note that it is possible for a pair to not haveboth vowels. The diacritics for the vowels are quite irregular, and they are shown intable 1.9.
Thus, after adding vowels we get ⟨ ⟩.
1.7. THE SCRIPT OF LEK-TSARO 13
Table 1.9: Vowel pairs in the script.
∅ a i iu io e eo ui u uo oe o
∅a
i
iu
io
e
eo
ui
u
uo
oe
o
Table 1.10: Miscellaneous symbols.
1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 5 6 6 7 7 8 8. . period (circumfix), comma\ name mark (equiv. to ⟨\⟩)
14 CHAPTER 1. PHONOLOGY AND ORTHOGRAPHY
2 | Syntax
2.1 | Basic word order
The basic word order is VSO. Descriptors follow what they modify.
2.2 | Questions
Binary questions have the interrogative polarity marker and no change to syntax.In wh-questions, the wh-word is pulled to the front (i. e. before the verb). This
requires case marking for the wh-word:
txen refiusha nio?who-acc speak-far.past-q pr.far.sgWhom did you speak to?
This applies only to questions, not interrogative-mood clauses that act as relativeclauses:
refiusha nio txel, yat ro.speak-far.past-q pr.far.sg who, see-near.past pr.anaph_obj.intI saw the person whom you talked to.
2.3 | Multiple clauses
A sentence might have multiple clauses. Each clause in a sentence follows the basicVSO order, and clauses are separated with commas.
15
16 CHAPTER 2. SYNTAX
3 | Nouns
Nouns are declined for number, case and definiteness.
3.1 | Number
Lek-Tsaro has many grammatical numbers:
Table 3.1: The discrete grammatical numbers of Lek-Tsaro.
Number Constraint on x ∈ ZIntegral noneNullary x = 0Singular |x| = 1Dual |x| = 2
Table 3.2: The continuous grammatical numbers of Lek-Tsaro.
Number Constraint on x ∈ RNullary x = 0Subsingular |x| < 1Supersingular 1 ≤ |x| < 2Plural |x| ≥ 2 or x is unknown
3.2 | Case
In a clause with both the subject and object directly expressed in that order, both thesubject and object are declined in the nominative case (and their roles are inferredthrough word order). In a clause where only one is present, or where both are ex-pressed in the opposite order, the subject will receive the nominative case and theobject will receive the accusative case.
3.3 | Noun classes
There are three overarching groups of noun classes.
17
18 CHAPTER 3. NOUNS
3.3.1 | Countable
Nouns in these classes are declined for a discrete number.
1. Sentient – such as humans, AIs, deities.2. Animate – nonsentient animals.3. Inanimate – anything else.
3.3.2 | Measurable
Nouns in this class are declined for a continuous number.
4. Measure – all measurable nouns, especially units of measurement.
3.3.3 | Uncountable
Nouns in these classes are not declined for number, and require compounding with acountable or measurable noun in order to be quantified.
5. Fluid – liquids and gases.6. Edible – edible (to humans) non-fluids.7. Inedible – inedible (to humans) non-fluids.8. Abstract – abstract ideas.
3.4 | Definiteness
The definite form of a noun is formed regularly by reduplicating the first syllable(without the coda): ⟨masas⟩ “a person” becomes ⟨mamasas⟩ “the person”.
3.5 | Declension table
3.5.1 | Countable classes
Note that noun declensions respect vowel harmony. For nouns with back vowels, re-place the front vowels with the back vowels of the same height and rounding, andvice versa.
Table 3.3: Declensions for countable nouns.
Integral Nullary Singular DualSentient: ⟨masa⟩ “person”Nominative masa masake masas masalAccusative masan masangke masanis masanalSentient: ⟨sha.en⟩ “magician”Nominative sha.en sha.ete sha.es sha.elAccusative sha.erin sha.engke sha.eris sha.eril(Note that the final consonant is preserved only in the integral nominative form.)Animate: ⟨mungo⟩ “rabbit”
3.5. DECLENSION TABLE 19
Integral Nullary Singular DualNominative mungo mungokoe mungos mungo.ui
Accusative mungon mungontoe mungon mungonui
Animate: ⟨siul⟩ “fox”Nominative siul siute sius siu.iAccusative siurin siungke siuris siuriInanimate: ⟨hacuo⟩ “statue”Nominative hacuo hacuokoe hacuok hacuosAccusative hacuom hacuompoe hacuopoe hacuofui
Inanimate: ⟨.imen⟩ “house”Nominative .imen .imete .imek .imesAccusative .imerim .imerimpe .imeripe .imerifi
3.5.2 | Measurable classes
Table 3.4: Declensions for measurable nouns.
Plural Nullary Subingular SupersingularMeasure: ⟨rumui⟩ “day (continuous)”Nominative rumui rumuiruo rumuit rumuinAccusative rumuin rumuiruon rumuintoe rumuinuinMeasure: ⟨mel⟩ “volume” (in expressions such as ⟨mel-yusoe⟩ “cupful”)Nominative mel merio merit merinAccusative merin merion merinte merinin(Note that the final consonant is preserved only in the plural nominative form.)
3.5.3 | Uncountable classes
Notably, uncountable-class noun declensions do not respect vowel harmony.
Table 3.5: Declensions for measurable nouns.
MassFluid: ⟨fxuruo⟩ “water”Nominative furuo
Accusative furuonFluid: ⟨dekem⟩ “nitrogen”Nominative dekemAccusative dekemin(Here, the coda is preserved in the accusative as well.)Edible: ⟨ter.io⟩ “beef”Nominative ter.io
Accusative ter.ionEdible: ⟨man⟩ “rice”Nominative manAccusative maninInedible: ⟨ruoto⟩ “gold”Nominative ruotoAccusative ruotobe
20 CHAPTER 3. NOUNS
MassInedible: ⟨kacas⟩ “stone”Nominative kacasAccusative kacaspeAbstract: ⟨fhuomo⟩ “empathy”Nominative fhuomoAccusative fhuomong
Abstract: ⟨gis⟩ “[the number] five”Nominative gisAccusative gising
3.6 | Pronouns
Personal pronouns are not divided into first, second and third persons as in mostlanguages. Instead, they fall into four categories which exhibit different behaviourdepending on whether they occur as the first or second noun in the clause:
Table 3.6: Pronoun persons and their functions.
Person Role in first position Role in second positionNear The speaker. Thefirst argument of the
sentence.Far The listener. If the first argument is
the speaker, then thelistener. Otherwise, thespeaker.
Other A third entity. An entity that is neitherthe speaker, the listenernor the first argument.
Generic A generic entity (akin to “one”).Anaphoric Subject The subject of the previous clause.Anaphoric Object The object of the previous clause.
In wh-questions, the wh-word assumes the second position and the other argu-ment becomes the first.
If a clause has no explicit arguments, the first argument is understood to be thesubject.
Table 3.7: Personal pronouns. ⟨-n⟩, ⟨-en⟩ or ⟨-oen⟩ is suffixed for the accusativecase.
(continuous) Pl. / Sub. / Sup. Nullary(discrete) Integral Nullary Singular DualNear ta keta me firiFar po koepo nui braOther ni keni jio kariAnaph. Sub. ra kera .im ngiriAnaph. Obj. ro koero .uim nguiroGeneric .uo
3.7. COMPOUNDING 21
(For the observant readers: notice the similarity to Kavinan’s system.)
3.6.1 | Last-clause pronouns
The anaphoric pronoun ⟨bes⟩ (accusative: ⟨besen⟩) is grammatically an other pro-noun, and it refers to theprevious clause said. Likewise, ⟨bepis⟩ (accusative: ⟨bepin⟩)refers to the clause before the previous one.
3.7 | Compounding
Nouns can be compounded together in a head-initial manner. When that happens,only the leftmost noun is the one to be declined.
mel-rusoe-fxuruo-gisvolume-cup-water-fivefive cupfuls of water
Note that integral pronouns can modify other nouns, in which personal posses-sion is indicated:
mel-rusoe-fxuruo-gis-tavolume-cup-water-five-pr.near.integral(arg1)’s five cupfuls of water
Descriptors can also compound onnouns. This compounding is productive in Lek-Tsaro.
masa-kuotaperson-oldold people(Compare to masa kuota “person old-sentient”.)
3.8 | Possession
“X’s Y” is translated as ⟨Y=ma sil X⟩. The possessive construction is also used tocreate appositives.
Observe that possession marks the head, and ⟨-ma⟩ is a clitic, not an affix, as inthe following example:
mumungos-fxuruo-ma sil sha.esdef~rabbit-sing-water=gen pos magician-singthe magician’s water rabbit
In more casual speech, ⟨sil⟩ may be dropped.
22 CHAPTER 3. NOUNS
4 | Verbs
Verbs are conjugated for person of the subject, tense, polarity and tellicity, in twoparadigms. Conjugation respects vowel harmony.
Table 4.1: Person-tense conjugations for verbs, using ⟨makan⟩ “(S) eats (O)”.
Nonpast PastNear makan makatFar makan makiusOther maka makiu
Anaph. Sub. make makelAnaph. Obj. maki.e maki.elGeneric makio makio
Table 4.2: Person-tense conjugations for verbs, using ⟨refin⟩ “(S) spreads (O)”.
Nonpast PastNear refin refitFar refan refiusOther refa refiu
Anaph. Sub. refe refelAnaph. Obj. refi.e refi.elGeneric refiu refiu
to which a suffix is added:Table 4.3: Polarity-tellicity suffixes for verbs. The interrogative affix can also followa negative affix.
Positive Negative InterrogativeTelic -� -ke / -koe -haAtelic -mi / -mui -sa -xiu / -xu
Notes:
• “Negative atelic” means something akin to “unsuccessfully tried to avoid doingX”.
23
24 CHAPTER 4. VERBS
• The interrogative polarity, in addition to marking questions, is used to markclauses that may or may not be true but are referred to later in the sentence.
Some examples:
makan jace txoro.eat-near.nonpast fish flowerFish eat flowers.
makan jace txoro, makan nyara ra.eat-near.nonpast fish flower, eat-near.nonpast cat pr.anaph_subFish eat flowers, and cats eat fish.
makan jace txoro, make ratabe.eat-near.nonpast fish flower, eat-anaph_sub.nonpast grass-accFish eat flowers, and they eat grass.(Grass is inedible to humans, but edible to fish.)
makanke txoro jace.eat-near.nonpast-neg flower fishFlowers don’t eat fish.
prin jio hrihridek, senan ta bes.carry-near.nonpast pr.other.sg def~book-sg, worry-near.nonpast pr.near.intpr.last_clauseHe has the book; that worries me.or: That he has the book worries me.
prinha jio hrihridek, senan ta bes.carry-near.nonpast-interrogativepr.other.sgdef~book-sg, worry-near.nonpastpr.near.int pr.last_clauseHe might have the book; that worries me.or: That he might have the book worries me.
4.1 | Aspect
Verbs can also be marked for aspect, either using a rod sign directly on the verb, or aparticle with a rod sign, placed anywhere between the verb it modifies and the nextverb.Table 4.4: Aspect markers. Those with hyphens are attached to verb. Those withouthyphens are placed as separate particles anywhere after the verb.
Aspect name Marking MeaningImperfect -1 An action that is currently going on. Also
used to distinguish static actions as op-posed to dynamic (e. g. wear as opposed toput on).
Interrupted txil1 An action that was interrupted.
4.2. OBLIQUES 25
Aspect name Marking MeaningPerfect -2 An action that has already finished.
Changes present tense to immediate past.Also used to distinguish dynamic actionsas opposed to static (e. g. put on as opposedto wear).
Gnomic -3 A general truth or aphorism, or an actiondone habitually.
Gnomic dubitative txil3 A general truth or aphorism that thespeaker considers to be false.
Deontic necessity -4 An action that the speaker insists on hap-pening.
Epistemic necessity kuim4 An action that the speaker infers is happen-ing.
Deontic potential -5 An action that the speaker permits to occur.Epistemic potential kuim5 An action that the speaker infers thatmight
happen.Unexpected -6 An action that is unexpected (akin to using
“but”).Comparative pe6 Indicates an action of greater intensity
than what was described in the previousclause.
Nonexclusive subject ki1 Indicates that the subject comprises notonly of what is explicitly mentioned, butalso other things.
Nonexclusive object ki3 Indicates that the object comprises notonly of what is explicitly mentioned, butalso other things.
Nonexclusive argument ki4 Combination of both nonexclusive subjectand nonexclusive object.
An example:
txalkatmi1 me ni, xini.el6 pungapoe-ra.fight-near.past-atelic-imperfectpr.near.sg pr.other.int, shoot-anaph_obj.past-unexpected knee-sg.acc-pr.anaph_sub.intI tried to fight them, but they shot my knee.
4.2 | Obliques
Lek-Tsaro lacks oblique arguments. Instead, equivalent expressions employ serialverb constructions. For instance, “he ate soup with a spoon” would be reduced to“he held a spoon and ate soup”:
priu jio foekoek, makel japsin.inst-other.past pr.other.sg spoon-sg, eat-anaph_sub.past soup-accHe held a spoon and ate soup.or: He ate soup with a spoon.
26 CHAPTER 4. VERBS
Likewise:
na.a ni susuk-ha.ar, nime hahacuopoe.temporal-other pr.other.int def~day-sg-spring, dance-anaph_sub def~statue-sg.accThey will wait until the spring equinox and dance around the statue.or: They will dance around the statue on the spring equinox.
A similar construction can be used for the negation of obliques:
priuke jio foekoek, makel6 japsin.inst-other.past-negpr.other.sg spoon-sg, eat-anaph_sub.past-unexpected soup-accHe did not hold a spoon, but ate soup.or: He ate soup without a spoon.
4.3 | Conjunctions
Conjunctions such as “and” are treated like obliques. For instance, “and” is represen-ted by the verb ⟨fin⟩, and precedes the clause in which the two are used:
fiu \riuse \tarul, makel ter.ion.and-other.past Ryse Tarul, eat-anaph_sub.past beef-accRyse and Tarul ate beef.
Sufficiently complex nestingmay be unrepresentable using only anaphoric refer-ents. The easiestway to resolve this issue is to use definite nouns in place of anaphoricreferents.
fiu \riuse \tarul, fiu ter.io japsi, makiu mamasal ra.and-other.pastRyseTarul, and-other.pastbeef soup, eat-other.pastdef~person-du pr.anaph_sub.cont[They,] Ryse and Tarul ate beef and soup.
4.4 | Subordinate clauses
Ideas such as “if” or “because” are also expressed with verbs. For example, ⟨na.in⟩“wait, when” is also used for “if”:
terakeha, na.in ta bes, fehin.rain-other-neg-q, wait-near pr.near.int anaph_clause, play-nearIf it doesn’t rain, we will play.
Note the clausal argument to ⟨na.in⟩, since our condition is an entire clause in-stead of a noun.
4.5. COMPARATIVES 27
4.4.1 | Conditions
Conditional ideas whose English translations contain “if” can also be expressed in amore concise way, but this usage can sometimes sound colloquial:
terakeha, fehin.rain-other-neg-q, play-nearIf it doesn’t rain, we will play.
4.5 | Comparatives
The comparative is a function cmp : A× A× (A → R)× (A× A → {0, 1}) → {0, 1},where cmp(a, b, f,⊐) = f(a) ⊐ f(b).
Consider the following sentences:
Fish eat flowers more than cats.More fish eat flowers than cats.
Semantically, they can be translated to:
cmp(fish, cats, a 7→ (# of flowers eaten by a), >) (4.1)cmp(fish, cats, a 7→ (# of a that eat flowers), >) (4.2)
The heart of comparatives in Lek-Tsaro is the quadrivalent verb ⟨doran a b f⊐⟩. Thus:
makioha txorom-shin, doran jace nyara ro net.eat-generic-q flower-acc.int-how_many, cmp-near fish cat pr.anaph_obj.int>Fish eat more flowers than cats.
makioha .uo-shin txoro, doran jace nyara ra net.eat-generic-q pr.generic-how_many flower, cmp-near fish cat pr.anaph_sub.int>More fish eat flowers than cats.
Note that we place a clause whose argument is the generic pronoun before thecomparative clause. From the doran-clause, we refer to the function using the ana-phoric pronoun referring to the position of the return value.
4.6 | Ditransitive-like constructions
In English, some verbs such as give take two objects: the item being given and the re-cipient of the item. Since clauses in Lek-Tsaro can take only one object, translatingsuch verbs requires multiple clauses:
tagat me hrihriden, nebel \riusen.lose-near.past pr.near.sg def~book, give_to-anaph_sub.past Ryse-accI gave the book to Ryse.
28 CHAPTER 4. VERBS
Table 4.5: Comparators in Lek-Tsaro.
⊐ Comparator> net< foek= teong
≥ tyal≤ mis̸= .ius≈ res≫ fhe≪ can
4.7 | Transitivisation
Verbs that are used intransitively (i. e. have no object passed at this time) can beturned into a causative form with the prefix ⟨gi-⟩:
txicit frefrenye.fall-near.past def~coinThe coins fell.
me gitxiciu frefrenye.pr.near.sg trans-fall-other.past def~coinI dropped the coins.
Note that theword order changes to SVO. In addition, the verb is conjugated for itsobject, rather than the subject as expected. If the following clause uses an anaphoricsubject, it refers to the object of the current clause.
Moreover, the verb does not need to be one that can never take an object. In theabove example, ⟨txicin⟩ means “(S) falls on (O)”. However, if the verb in questionis taking an object, it cannot be transitivised directly and a more roundabout way isrequired:
txicit frefrenye rata.fall-near.past def~coin grassThe coins fell on the grass.
me gitxiciu frefrenye, txicel ratabe.pr.near.sg trans-fall-other.past def~coin, fall-anaph_sub.past grass-accI dropped the coins; they fell on grass.or: I dropped the coins on grass.
4.8 | Clauses with nullary arguments
A clause with one ormore arguments that are nullary or modified by nullary-numbernouns (either through compounding or possession) will have a negative verb as well:
mutanke masake.
4.9. THE COPULA 29
recall-near-neg person-nullNo one knows.
tsiltanke me sartama sil sha.eke.want-near-neg pr.near.sg ring=gen pos magician-nullI don’t want the rings of any magician.
4.9 | The copula
The copula ⟨sin⟩ can take a noun as an object, in which case it can mean identity ormembership. (Location is expressed with ⟨kan⟩ “be at”.) With no object at all, it isused to denote existence.
It can also accept a descriptor, in which case the descriptor is attached before⟨sin⟩ in the dictionary form.
30 CHAPTER 4. VERBS
5 | Descriptors
Descriptors act as adjectives or adverbs. They follow what they modify, and are in-flected for the noun class or verbal person of their antecedents.
Table 5.1: Descriptor declensions, using the descriptors ⟨hemta⟩ “large” and ⟨kuota⟩“old”.
Class or person Declined formSentient hemta kuotaAnimate hemta kuotaInanimate hemte kuotoe
Measure hemtas kuotasFluid hemtes kuotoesEdible hemti kuotui
Inedible hemteo kuotoAbstract hemtiu kuotuNear hemtar kuotarFar hemtar kuotarOther hemter kuoterAnaph. Sub. hemtar kuotarAnaph. Obj. hemter kuoterGeneric hemtior kuotuor
5.1 | Conversion
A noun can be converted to a descriptor by appending ⟨-sa⟩.A descriptor can be converted to an abstract noun meaning “the nature of being
~” by replacing the final ⟨-a⟩ with ⟨-inel⟩.
31
32 CHAPTER 5. DESCRIPTORS
6 | Tree mode
As mentioned in section 4.3, anaphoric referents in a linked-list sentence are some-times insufficient for expressing even simple sentence structures. While the easiestmethod of resolving this issue is using definite nouns, Lek-Tsaro also provides amodewhere sentences are not linked lists of clauses, but rather (binary) trees.
6.1 | Activation
Tree mode is enabled automatically when the treeing particle ⟨nya7⟩ is used, anddisabled at the end of a sentence.
6.2 | Branch-switching
The aforementioned particle ⟨nya7⟩ marks the beginning of the right branch of thetree. The right branch is ended by the particle ⟨nya8⟩, which causes the next clauseto join the left and right branches.
(N. B. ⟨nya7⟩ and ⟨nya8⟩ can occur only between clauses. If the particles are rep-resented by left and right brackets, respectively, then the brackets should match.)
6.3 | Anaphoric pronouns in joiner clauses
In clauses that join two branches, anaphoric pronouns require marking whether theantecedent occurs in the left predecessor ⟨nya7⟩ or the right predecessor ⟨nya8⟩.This is done by marking the pronoun with ⟨-7⟩ or ⟨-8⟩.
Likewise, verbs can be modified with ⟨-7⟩ or ⟨-8⟩ to indicate which branch thesubject came from.
6.4 | Errors
The following are ungrammatical:
• Using the particle ⟨nya8⟩ or the branched anaphoric pronounswhen treemodeis disabled
• Using the particle ⟨nya8⟩ other than to close a corresponding ⟨nya7⟩• Using the unbranched anaphoric pronouns in clauses with two predecessors
33
34 CHAPTER 6. TREE MODE
• Using the branched anaphoric pronouns in clauses with one predecessor• Starting a new branch with ⟨nya7⟩ when the current branch is empty
6.5 | Example
The second example in section 4.3 can be expressed as follows:
fiu \riuse \tarul, nya7 fiu ser.io japsi, nya8 makel7 rin8.
The resulting tree is shown below:
makel7 rin8
fiu \riuse \tarul
fiu ser.io japsi
7 | Numerals
Lek-Tsaro uses a mixed-base system for its numerals. Numerals are abstract nouns.A Perl 6 program to convert numerals can be found in Section A.3.
7.1 | Single-digit numerals
Here are the numerals for n < 17:Table 7.1: The cardinal numbers from 0 – 16.
base 10 base v word0 0 rum1 1 fiul2 2 tas3 3 dyeon4 4 fxar5 5 gis6 6 mye7 7 tsis8 8 puon9 9 hep
10 T bung
11 K nui
12 X xeo
13 S ship14 N yan15 V kel16 F .ar
Note that digits above 9 use capital hacm letters.
7.2 | Numerals up to 19 · 17These are represented by two digits. The multiples of 17 are shown below:
35
36 CHAPTER 7. NUMERALS
Table 7.2: Multiples of 17, up to 18 · 17.
base 10 base v word17 10 jeliu
34 20 maliu
51 30 dyeoliu
68 40 tamliu
85 50 gistiu
102 60 myeliu
119 70 tsistiu
136 80 puonu153 90 heliu
170 T0 bungu187 K0 nuilu204 X0 xeoliu
221 S0 shipliu
238 N0 yaniu
255 V0 kelyiu
272 F0 .alyiu
289 M0 saljiu
306 D0 hempiu
Thus y · 17+ x is written ⟨x-y⟩.
7.3 | Numerals up to 13 · 19 · 17 = 4199These are represented by three digits. The multiples of 19 · 17 are listed below:
Table 7.3: Multiples of 19 · 17, up to 12 · 19 · 17.
base 10 base v word323 100 hasatan646 200 tasatan969 300 dyeosetan
1292 400 fxaratan1615 500 gisatan1938 600 myesatan2261 700 tsisatan2584 800 puonatan2907 900 hefatan3230 T00 bungatan3553 K00 nuisatan3876 X00 xeosatan
Thus (z · 19 · 17) + (y · 17) + x is written ⟨z-x-y⟩.
7.4 | Numerals up to and including 4199 · (4199+ 1)/2 = 8817900The numeral for 4199 is ⟨ku.olui⟩, written as ⟨1:000⟩.
7.5. HIGHER NUMERALS 37
Likewise, two ⟨ku.olui⟩ is written as ⟨2:000⟩ and pronounced ⟨ku.olui-tas⟩, butthe second ⟨ku.olui⟩ is one smaller than the first. In other words, ⟨2:000⟩ = 4199 +(4199− 1) = 8397.
Table 7.4: “Multiples” of ⟨ku.olui⟩.
“Multiple” Difference from last Total(0) 0
1:000 4199 41992:000 4198 83973:000 4197 125944:000 4196 167905:000 4195 20985
...XDV:000 3 8817897XDF:000 2 88178991::000:000 1 8817900
Thus the nth “multiple” differs from the (n−1)thmultiple by (4199+1−n) (given1 ≤ n ≤ 4199), and the sum of the first n “multiples” is
y(n) =n∑
i=1(4200− n)
=12 · (8399 · n− n2) (7.1)
And likewise, for some given y, the largest “multiple” of ⟨ku.olui⟩ not smallerthan y has the index
N(y) =⌊12 ·
(8399−√70543201− 8 · y)⌋ (7.2)
In other words, for any numeral ⟨n1:n2⟩, n1 + n2 must be less than 4199.
7.5 | Higher numerals
The bases of higher numerals bi can be derived from the recurrence relation
bi =4199 if i = 1
bi−1 · (bi−1 + 1)2 otherwise (7.3)
Then bi acts as a new triangular base. Equations 7.1 and 7.2 can be generalised tothe following:
38 CHAPTER 7. NUMERALS
y(n, bi) =n∑
i=1(bi + 1− n) (7.4)
=12 · (n · (2 · bi + 1− n)) (7.5)
N(y, bi) =⌊12 ·
(2 · bi −
√4 · b2i + 4 · bi + 1− 8 · y
)⌋(7.6)
It follows that y(n1, bi)+n2 is represented as ⟨n1:in2⟩ (i colons), and such anumeralmust satisfy n1 + n2 < bi.
Here are the names of the bases themselves:Table 7.5: Names of higher bases.
Base base v wordb1 1:000 ku.olui
b2 1::000:000 meriotab3 1:::000:000::000:000 talruo
b4 deniwa
7.6 | Cardinal and ordinal numerals
Cardinal numerals compound to their antecedents; ordinal numerals use the possess-ive ⟨-ma sil⟩ construction:
mifa-dyeonchild-threethree children
mifasma sil dyeonchild-sg=gen pos threethe third child
8 | Derivational morphology
The following methods are used to derive related terms from existing ones.
8.1 | Abstraction
Abstraction is a derivation that takes a non-abstract noun and returns the abstractnoun representing the concept of the argument. This formation appends ⟨-ne⟩ or⟨-noe⟩ to the noun.
Examples:• ⟨hriden⟩ book→ ⟨hridene⟩ literature• ⟨hoka⟩ cart → ⟨hokanoe⟩ transportationNote that any double letters collapse into a single.
8.2 | Dematuration
Dematuration is a derivation that takes a noun and returns a noun of the same classthat represents an immature form of the argument (not necessarily a diminuitive).⟨ti-⟩ or ⟨tui-⟩ are prepended to nouns that begin in ⟨s⟩ or ⟨x⟩, or ⟨si-⟩ or ⟨sui-⟩otherwise.
Examples:• ⟨masa⟩ person→ ⟨simasa⟩ child• ⟨tsoruo⟩ fruit → ⟨suitsoruo⟩ unripe fruit• ⟨secakin⟩ essay→ ⟨tisecakin⟩ draft
8.3 | Verb-to-noun conversions
Verb-to-noun conversions involve an operation called inversion; this operation swapscertain phonemes of a word:
• front vowels↔ back vowels• voiceless plosives↔ voiced plosives (in any position other than in a coda)• t↔ k, p↔ ty (in coda position)
39
40 CHAPTER 8. DERIVATIONAL MORPHOLOGY
• f↔ sh
• s↔ fh (in any position other than in a coda)• h↔ fx
• r↔ c (in any position other than after a fricative in an onset or in a coda)• j↔ l (in any position other than in a coda)• r↔ l (in coda position)• y↔ w
For instance, ⟨ra.itan⟩ would be inverted to ⟨ca.uidan⟩.All other phonemes are unchanged.Since all of the conversions below are straightforward, only their names will be
mentioned.Table 8.1: Verb-to-noun conversions, from the inversion of the verb stem.
Name AffixAgent -eong / -ong
Patient -eop / -opLocation -eor / -orInstrument -atsa
Table 8.2: An example with ⟨nuoban⟩ to steal.
Name Derivation MeaningAgent niopeong thiefPatient niopeop stolen goodsLocation niopeor site of theftInstrument niopatsa tool used for theft
9 | Names
Names fall into two grammatical categories:
• Nominal names act as nouns. They are usually single words.• Clausal names are entire clauses. These names usually refer to places, although afewpeople have clausal names. In extreme cases, such anamecan spanmultipleclauses.
9.1 | Nominal names
These names act as nouns, and they are preceded by a backslash ⟨\⟩. If the namespans multiple words (as common in foreign names), spaces are escaped by back-slashes. No distinction is made between native and foreign names.
Only personal names can stand on their own, and even then, only given or fullnames. Other names must modify a common noun describing the nature of what isnamed, in the integral number without definiteness.
Table 9.1: Some examples of nominal names.
Name Type\riuse Personal (native)\tarul Personal (native)\remin Personal (foreign)preome-\waxa.i Place (foreign)
Native names will usually respect vowel harmony. Children of parents who workin professions demanding physical labour (e. g. bricklaying) will usually have nameswith back vowels. In contrast, those born to parents of professions that do not de-mand physical strength (e. g. computer programming) will usually bear names withfront vowels.
9.2 | Clausal names
These names comprise of one or more clauses. Due to the nature of clausal names,they are all considered native. Most of these names refer to places; personal clausalnames are almost always nicknames or such. Orthographically, they are put intosquare brackets ⟨[]⟩.
41
42 CHAPTER 9. NAMES
Clausal names are used by saying them as their own clauses, then using an ana-phoric pronoun to backreference the entity described by the name in question. Thetype of anaphoric pronoun used varies from name to name. It might be the anaphoricsubject pronoun, the object pronoun or the last-clause pronoun.
We call the referent the subject, the object or the verb of the last clause, respect-ively depending on the type of anaphoric pronoun used to refer to the name. If thereferent is a noun, it must be declined in the integral number without definiteness.
Here, as common in maps and such, the referent will be capitalised. However,other contexts that make the type of anaphoric pronoun to use clear do not use thistype of capitalisation.
Table 9.2: Some examples of clausal names.
Name Type Literal meaning[NERFIU pcatsa tofok] Place The trees covered the ground[muta PREOME riuk-\xedrio] Place The city remembers the Šedrŷ
star[fiu kratu-ma sil sur sha.en-masil kadio, gwesi.el PREOMEM]
Place The city was founded by the war-rior of the sun and the wizard ofthe moon
[mesa \GULTO siul-jeliu] Personal Gulto takes care of 17 foxes
An example of usage:
na.a banen-bus, [muta preome riuk-\xedrio], shan mamasas .im.wait-other year-future, (name), go-near def~person-sg pr.anaph_sub.sgHe will go to Muta Pröme Ryk-Šedrŷ next year.
10 | Calendar
Domain II, which contains Rymako, has a day that is 26.99410 hours long. Other figuresare given in terms of local days:
Table 10.1: Astronomical measures for Domain II.
Period Length in local daysLocal (synodic) day 1.00000Sidereal day 0.99699Tropical year (ly) 301.94714Sidereal year 302.03719Synodic month (lm) 30.80152Sidereal month 27.95032
10.1 | Tides
In Domain II, the offset of the sea level due to the tide can bemodeled by the followingequations:
y = ys + ym (10.1)ys = As · (1+ Asa · cos(τ · t)) · cos(2 · τ · t) (10.2)
ym = Am ·(1+ Ama · cos
(τ · tlm
))· cos
(2 · τ · (1− lm) · tlm
)(10.3)
where:
τ = 2 · πAs ≈ 0.675Asa ≈ 0.0532Am ≈ 1.267Ama ≈ 0.176
y = offset of sea level in metrest = time since HAT in local synodic days
43
44 CHAPTER 10. CALENDAR
An exact solution to dy/dt = 0 is not known to exist. However, the solutions tothis equation can be found numerically. Consult Section A.1 for a Sage program to doso.
As the calendar used by Lek-Tsaro uses the high and low tides to count time, it isnot synchronised even with days. The basic unit of time in the calendar is the tidalday ⟨rumui⟩ (lt) – the amount of time between a high tide and the second high tidethereafter, which is, on average, 1.03356 local synodic days, but can vary considerably.Thus:
lm/lt ≈ 29.80148 (10.4)≈ 4053/136 (10.5)
ly/lm ≈ 9.80299 (10.6)≈ 7215/736 (10.7)
This suggests that:
1. most months will have 30 days, but every 136months, 27months will have only29.
2. most years will have 10 months, but every 736 years, 145 years will have only 9.
10.2 | Months
Months followa 136-month cyclewherein the 5n+2-numberedmonths (zero-indexed,n ∈ N) have 29 days and the other months have 30.
The names of months, on the other hand, are determined from their positionsrelative to the first month of the year:
Table 10.2: The months of the year.
# Name0 fuobuo
1 riu.em2 tsagol3 murusa4 kceram5 toemut6 nguruit7 xibila8 bomuok9* .iseora
Days within a month are indexed from one.
10.3 | Years
The lengths of the year follow a 736-year cycle as specified in Figure 10.1. The codeused to generate this table can be found in Section A.2.
10.4. ERAS 45
Figure 10.1: Table of year lengths in a cycle.
0123456789 | 0123456789 | 0123456789 | 01234567890 XXXXX9XXXX | 19 XX9XXXX9XX | 38 9XXXX9XXXX | 57 XXX9XXXX9X1 9XXXX9XXXX | 20 XXX9XXXX9X | 39 9XXXX9XXXX | 58 XXX9XXXX9X2 9XXXX9XXXX | 21 XXX9XXXX9X | 40 9XXXXX9XXX | 59 XXX9XXXX9X3 9XXXX9XXXX | 22 XXX9XXXX9X | 41 X9XXXX9XXX | 60 XXXX9XXXX94 9XXXX9XXXX | 23 XXX9XXXX9X | 42 X9XXXX9XXX | 61 XXXX9XXXX95 9XXXX9XXXX | 24 XXX9XXXX9X | 43 X9XXXX9XXX | 62 XXXX9XXXX96 9XXXX9XXXX | 25 XXX9XXXX9X | 44 X9XXXX9XXX | 63 XXXX9XXXX97 X9XXXX9XXX | 26 XXX9XXXXX9 | 45 X9XXXX9XXX | 64 XXXX9XXXX98 X9XXXX9XXX | 27 XXXX9XXXX9 | 46 X9XXXX9XXX | 65 XXXX9XXXX99 X9XXXX9XXX | 28 XXXX9XXXX9 | 47 XX9XXXX9XX | 66 XXXX9XXXXX
10 X9XXXX9XXX | 29 XXXX9XXXX9 | 48 XX9XXXX9XX | 67 9XXXX9XXXX11 X9XXXX9XXX | 30 XXXX9XXXX9 | 49 XX9XXXX9XX | 68 9XXXX9XXXX12 X9XXXX9XXX | 31 XXXX9XXXX9 | 50 XX9XXXX9XX | 69 9XXXX9XXXX13 X9XXXXX9XX | 32 XXXX9XXXX9 | 51 XX9XXXX9XX | 70 9XXXX9XXXX14 XX9XXXX9XX | 33 XXXXX9XXXX | 52 XX9XXXX9XX | 71 9XXXX9XXXX15 XX9XXXX9XX | 34 9XXXX9XXXX | 53 XX9XXXXX9X | 72 9XXXX9XXXX16 XX9XXXX9XX | 35 9XXXX9XXXX | 54 XXX9XXXX9X | 73 9XXXX917 XX9XXXX9XX | 36 9XXXX9XXXX | 55 XXX9XXXX9X |18 XX9XXXX9XX | 37 9XXXX9XXXX | 56 XXX9XXXX9X |
9: 9 monthsX: 10 months
10.4 | Eras
Years are grouped further into eras ⟨kaya⟩, which change on major historical events.The start of a new era resets the month and year cycle. Eras can also start in themiddle of a year of the previous era; thus, the start of the year is different for eachera. The crossover date of an era is the date of the era that coincides with the first dayof the next; in other words, it is the date immediately after the last day of the era.
The first day of ⟨kaya-nihel⟩ coincides with the founding of the (not yet named).
10.5 | Subdivisions of the day
Lek-Tsaro has two systems for subdividing the day.
10.5.1 | Traditional timekeeping
The traditional system of timekeeping relies on subdivisions of the solar day. Asshown in Figure 10.2, the period between sunrise and sunset are divided into sixequally-sized parts ⟨som⟩, and the night is considered a separate category. This im-plies that the length of the “hours” depends on the seasons.
The traditional timekeeping system is vague – typically, the most precise intervalused is a quarter or eighth of an “hour”.
46 CHAPTER 10. CALENDAR
Table 10.3: The months of the year.
Name Crossover date Days between Cumulativekaya-rukoe
kaya-kuotakaya-kasnepiu
kaya-nihel
4 kceram 98212 tsagol 6V68 xibila 23X(to present)
889726642508207366
88972615322341739600
Figure 10.2: Hours in traditional timekeeping.
fikal
fikalsom-mente
som-2
som-3
som-4
som-5
som-miriuk
10.5.2 | Modern timekeeping
The need for precise schedules necessitated another standard for subdividing the day.Themodern system is based on the tidal day, rather than the solar day. In theory, eachtidal day is divided into 23 equal parts ⟨kan⟩, each of which is divided into 80 equalparts ⟨sine⟩, which are each divided into 40 equal parts ⟨bacuk⟩.
Of course, having 23 ⟨kan⟩ per tidal day requires predicting the next two hightides. For that reason, each day’s ⟨kan⟩ are based on the length of the previous tidalday, such that each day might have more or less than 23 ⟨kan⟩.
11 | Miscellanea
11.1 | Colour
Lek-Tsaro has eleven non-derived colour terms:Red-orange
Yellow-green
Green
Aquamarine
Turquoise
Cyan
Sky-blue
Azure
Blue
Violet
Grey
Note that “grey” refers generically to a loss of chroma. There is no distinctionbetween a decrease in saturation and a decrease in value.
Lek-Tsaroworkswith colour transitions, not static colours, and uses abstract nounsto represent them. See table 11.1.
Table 11.1: Colour transitions in Lek-Tsaro. Each row represents a different starting colour;each column represents a different ending colour.
RO YG Gn Aq Tu Cy SB Az Bl Vi GyRO has mek dyen fal shir pul beot mal fxoep teng miYG moet ruom hoep diul ngios tek nyar fhet tseony yep puo
Gn tyoen fxety jek cum goet nuil bony xeoty siul shuos koAq shar tur rium wik tyul .uik txor kros nwep tcap beo
Tu fuil nguos kek dyiur myen ris hom tyel swit duor cuCy biur doet nior .it cuis bcek txiol nyak frin buit noSB pok nyal peony txeol fxeom txuor wap shrop pen cip tsiu
Az mar soek xop gceos dwoer nyat freoty fis tir rup waBl hety tsony fhur nyoety fhyuik shruin boen duil hak kiung yuo
Vi doeng woety fios draty tiol piok ruity ciuty gung hon faGy do biu ke pu re si tsa ya fhe shi .is
47
48 CHAPTER 11. MISCELLANEA
11.2 | Transitions
Oddly, transitions are idiomatic clauses whose literal meanings differ from (but areusually remotely related to) their actual meanings.
Transition Literal Actualfin te.er txarik the rain joins the river in addition, furthermore,
moreoverdyafin siul-mifa siul-narma
the child fox follows theparent fox
in the same way
kcalan3 rumui rilin the tidal days are determ-ined by the waves
of course, naturally
potan nuiga mungo,make2 ron
thewolf chases the rabbitand eats it
one one hand
mekin mungo, fagan6nuinuiga memek
but another rabbit digs ahole and the wolf falls in-side
on the other hand
yunan2 \ciup suk Řyp raises the sun for instance, for examplemesin te.er txoro the rain tends the flowers as a result, thus, there-
forefin hacuo kakel, sin2masa-napis-kika ra
the people of the presentbecome statues andbones
finally, in conclusion, atlast
nuonat mexe \ciup even Řypwas defeated bytime
above all
meodin txaris welse the river or the forest by all means, by nomeans (before a negativesentence)
A | Listings of programs
A.1 | workfiles/7/tides.sage
1 # How many values to output23 limit = int(sys.argv[1]) if len(sys.argv) > 1 else 100045 # :P67 tau = 2 * pi89 t = var("t")
1011 # Constants1213 A_s = 0.675; A_sa = 0.0532; A_m = 1.267; A_ma = 0.176; l_m = 30.801521415 # Solar component16 y_s2 = A_s * (1 + A_sa * cos(tau * t)) * cos(2 * tau * t)17 # Lunar component18 y_m2 = A_m * (1 + A_ma * cos(tau * t / l_m)) * cos(2 * tau * t / l_m -
2 * tau * t)19 y = y_s2 + y_m220 yp = diff(y, t)2122 # High and low tides occur at values of t where dy/dt = 0.2324 i = 025 time = 026 print(0)27 while i < limit:28 try:29 time2 = find_root(yp == 0, time + 0.000000001, time + 0.35)30 print(time2)31 time = time232 i += 133 except:34 time += 0.01
workfiles/7/tides.sage
49
50 APPENDIX A. LISTINGS OF PROGRAMS
A.2 | workfiles/7/bins.pl6
1 # CONSTANTS23 constant \MONTHS_PER_YEAR_CYCLE = 7215;4 constant \YEARS_PER_YEAR_CYCLE = 736;5 constant \AVG_MONTHS_PER_YEAR = MONTHS_PER_YEAR_CYCLE /
YEARS_PER_YEAR_CYCLE;67 # COMPUTATION8 # For each year, take as many months as are needed9 # in order to cycle to the next.
1011 my $c = 0;12 my @k;1314 for 0 ..^ YEARS_PER_YEAR_CYCLE -> $i {15 my $need = 1 - ($c - floor($c));16 my $objs = ceiling($need * AVG_MONTHS_PER_YEAR);17 @k[$i] = $objs;18 $c += $objs / AVG_MONTHS_PER_YEAR;19 }2021 # DISPLAY2223 my \cols = 4;24 my $len = @k.elems;2526 say (" 0123456789" xx cols).join(" | ");2728 my \total-rows = ceiling($len / 10);29 my \rows = ceiling(total-rows / cols);3031 for 0 ..^ rows -> $j {32 for 0 ..^ cols -> $p {33 print(" | ") if $p != 0;34 my $q = $j + rows * $p;35 next if $q >= total-rows;36 printf("%3d ", $q);37 for 0 ..^ 10 {38 my $i = 10 * $q + $_;39 if $i >= $len { print " "; }40 else {41 print "0123456789XE".substr(@k[$i], 1);42 }43 }44 }45 say "";46 }
workfiles/7/bins.pl6
A.3 | workfiles/7/conno.pl6
1 my $digits-str = "0123456789TKXSNVFMD";2 my @digits = $digits-str.comb;3
A.3. WORKFILES/7/CONNO.PL6 51
4 sub convert-small-fwd($n, $pad = False) {5 die "$n must be < 4199" if $n >= 4199;6 my $a = $n div (19 * 17);7 my $b = ($n div 17) % 19;8 my $c = $n % 17;9 return
10 (!$pad && $a == 0 ?? "" !! @digits[$a]) ~11 (!$pad && $b == 0 && $a == 0 ?? "" !! @digits[$b]) ~12 @digits[$c];13 }1415 sub convert-small-back($s) {16 die "$s must be 3 chars or fewer" if $s.chars > 3;17 my $c = $digits-str.index($s.substr(* - 1, 1) // "0");18 my $b = $digits-str.index($s.substr(* - 2, 1) // "0");19 my $a = $digits-str.index($s.substr(* - 3, 1) // "0");20 return $c + 17 * ($b + 19 * $a);21 }2223 sub triangle($n, $p) {24 return ($n * (2 * $p + 1 - $n)) div 2;25 }2627 sub sqrt-floor($y) {28 die "$y is negative" if $y < 0;29 return $y if $y < 2;30 my $small = sqrt-floor($y +> 2) +< 1;31 my $large = $small + 1;32 return $small if $large * $large > $y;33 return $large;34 }35 sub sqrt-ceil($y) {36 my $n = sqrt-floor($y);37 return $n if $n * $n == $y;38 return $n + 1;39 }4041 sub untriangle($y, $p) {42 return (2 * $p + 1 - sqrt-ceil(4 * $p * $p + 4 * $p - 8 * $y + 1))
div 2;43 }4445 my @powers = (4199);4647 for 0 .. 10 {48 my $p = @powers[* - 1];49 @powers.push: $p * ($p + 1) div 2;50 }5152 sub convert-large-fwd-h($n, $i, $pad = False) {53 # base case54 if $i == 0 {55 return convert-small-fwd($n, $pad);56 }57 # recursive58 my $super = untriangle($n, @powers[$i - 1]);59 my $infra = $n - triangle($super, @powers[$i - 1]);60 if $super == 0 && !$pad {61 return convert-large-fwd-h($infra, $i - 1, False);62 }63 return64 convert-large-fwd-h($super, $i - 1, $pad) ~
52 APPENDIX A. LISTINGS OF PROGRAMS
65 (":" x $i) ~66 convert-large-fwd-h($infra, $i - 1, True);67 }6869 sub convert-large-fwd($n, $pad = False) {70 my $i = 0;71 ++$i while @powers[$i] <= $n;72 convert-large-fwd-h($n, $i, $pad);73 }7475 sub convert-large-back($s) {76 # Find the longest run of colons77 my @matches = ($s ~~ m:g/":"+/); #/"78 if (!@matches) {79 return convert-small-back($s);80 }81 my $longest-match = @matches.max(*.chars);82 my $i = (~$longest-match).chars;83 my $left = $s.substr(0, $longest-match.from);84 my $right = $s.substr($longest-match.to);85 my $sup = convert-large-back($left);86 my $inf = convert-large-back($right);87 return triangle($sup, @powers[$i - 1]) + $inf;88 }8990 multi MAIN(Int :$fwd) {91 say convert-large-fwd($fwd);92 }93 multi MAIN(Str :$back) {94 say convert-large-back($back);95 }
workfiles/7/conno.pl6
A.4 | workfiles/7/count-days.pl6
1 # Count the number of days between 1/0/0 and D/M/Y, inclusive.23 # CONSTANTS45 constant \MONTHS_PER_YEAR_CYCLE = 7215;6 constant \YEARS_PER_YEAR_CYCLE = 736;7 constant \AVG_MONTHS_PER_YEAR = MONTHS_PER_YEAR_CYCLE /
YEARS_PER_YEAR_CYCLE;8 constant \MONTHS_PER_MONTH_CYCLE = 136;9 constant \DAYS_PER_MONTH_CYCLE = 4053;
1011 # COMPUTATION12 # For each year, take as many months as are needed13 # in order to cycle to the next.1415 my $c = 0;16 my @k = (0);1718 for 0 ..^ YEARS_PER_YEAR_CYCLE -> $i {19 my $need = 1 - ($c - floor($c));20 my $objs = ceiling($need * AVG_MONTHS_PER_YEAR);21 @k[$i + 1] = $objs;22 $c += $objs / AVG_MONTHS_PER_YEAR;
A.4. WORKFILES/7/COUNT-DAYS.PL6 53
23 }2425 my @cumk = [\+] @k;2627 sub months-before-year($year) {28 my $whole-cycles = $year div YEARS_PER_YEAR_CYCLE;29 my $remainder = $year % YEARS_PER_YEAR_CYCLE;30 return $whole-cycles * MONTHS_PER_YEAR_CYCLE + @cumk[$remainder];31 }3233 my @m = (0);3435 for 0 ..^ MONTHS_PER_MONTH_CYCLE -> $i {36 @m.push: ($i % 5 == 2) ?? 29 !! 30;37 }3839 my @cumm = [\+] @m;4041 sub days-before-month($month) {42 my $whole-cycles = $month div MONTHS_PER_MONTH_CYCLE;43 my $remainder = $month % MONTHS_PER_MONTH_CYCLE;44 return $whole-cycles * DAYS_PER_MONTH_CYCLE + @cumm[$remainder];45 }4647 sub days-before-date($d2, $m, $y) {48 my $d = $d2 - 1; # d is 0-indexed49 my $bm = months-before-year($y) + $m;50 return days-before-month($bm) + $d;51 }5253 sub MAIN($d2, $m, $y) {54 say days-before-date($d2, $m, $y);55 }
workfiles/7/count–days.pl6
54 APPENDIX A. LISTINGS OF PROGRAMS
B | Arithmetic in base v
This chapter describes algorithms for performing arithmetic operations in Lek-Tsaro’snumber system.
B.1 | Operations on small numbers
B.1.1 | Additions
If both addends are smaller than 4199, then it is sufficient to usemixed-base addition:1
4 T 97 3 NT N 6
1 12 6 5X F 3
1 2 4 8
B.1.2 | Subtraction
If both of the operands are smaller than 4199, then it is sufficient to use mixed-basesubtraction.
6 13.
��7 ��3 N4 T 92 X 5
B.1.3 | Determining parity
A number less than 4199 is even iff the sum of its digits in base v is even – that is,either none of its digits are odd, or if exactly two are.
B.1.4 | Dividing by two
If a number’s base-v representation contains only even digits, then divide each digitby two.
If the representation has two odd digits, then take advantage of the identities
55
56 APPENDIX B. ARITHMETIC IN BASE V
11v/2 = 9v101v/2 = 99v110v/2 = T0v
This operation is written as ⟨m⟩, short for ⟨myane⟩ “one half”. Thus, in hacm:
• m11 = 9
• m101 = 99
• m110 = T0
B.1.5 | Multiplication
With the previous two operations, it is now possible to use peasant multiplication tomultiply small numbers.
B.2 | Operations on larger numbers
B.2.1 | Addition
For some i ∈ N, and two numbers number a = xa :i ya and b = xb :i yb, we takeadvantage of the fact that
xa :i ya + xb :i yb = (xa + 1) :i ya + (xb − 1) :i yb + (xa − xb + 1) (B.1)xa :i ya + xb :i yb = (xa + xb) :i ya + 0 :i yb + xa · xb (B.2)
= (xa + xb) :i (ya + yb) + xa · xb (B.3)
| Romanisation
In this text, the romanisation is used only to transcribe names into English. Wheneverpossible, the hacmisation should be used.
Table B.1: The consonants of Lek-Tsaro.
Bilabial Alveolar Palatal Velar GlottalNasal m n ñ ŋPlosive p b t d ť ď k g ’Fricative f s š h(coarticulated) þh fh fšAffricate ts tšLateral fricative łApproximant r j wLateral approximant lTrill ř
Table B.2: The vowels of Lek-Tsaro.
Spread Half-rounded Roundedi y ŷï u ûe öë oa
Rod signs are represented by the Arabic digits ⟨1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8⟩ attached to the endof the verbs they encompass. Proper words are preceded by a backslash ⟨\⟩.
⟨ŋ⟩ should be capitalised as ⟨Ŋ⟩ only if one can depend on the majuscule glyphappearing like an N with a hook. Otherwise, it should be spelled ⟨Ng⟩.
57
58 APPENDIX B. ARITHMETIC IN BASE V
C | Dictionary
| .
.iksra desc new
.infa desc hot
.imen ninanim house
.iuciu.in v (S) perceives, detects,finds (O)
.ucu.i nabst perception, detection
.uotulo nabst sadness, grief
| t
txaris ninanim rivertxalkan v (S) fights (O)txicin v (S) falls on (O)txirpin v (O) breaks (S)txoro ninanim flowertxoepa desc sufficient, wanted,
wished-fortxeka desc complete, full, maturetxel nsent who?tsapo nabst power, magic, motiva-
tiontsikin v (S) stabs, stings (O)tsiltan v (S) wants (O), benefactivetsoruo ninanim fruittcasin v (S) answers to (O)tcesi nsent child (young person)trang ninanim cloudtagan v (S) loses, frees (O); (O) es-
capestabra desc heavytofok ninanim tree
tofok nined woodtoelui nedib icete.er nfluid raintepin v (S) buys (O)ter.io nedib beefteran v rain (S = other)tulka nsent coward, knavetuiro nined blood vessels
| k
kcalan v (S) is determined by (O); (S)is a function of (O)
kratyuo nsent warriorkrak ninanim stairskwoela desc potent, powerful not
in a physical senseka.ipa nabst southkakan v (S) makes a loud noisekakel ninanim bonekasnepiu ninanim mirrorkan v (S) is at (O), locational verbkan nmeas subdivision of the day
cf Grammar / Calendar / Subdivisions ofthe day / Modern timekeeping
kadio ninanim moonkaya ninanim erakacas nined stonekika desc all, everykona desc whole, entirekeha ninanim toothkuo.an v (S) needs (O)kuota desc old
59
60 APPENDIX C. DICTIONARY
| x
xreonin v (S) hunts for (O)xinan v (S) shoots an arrow to (O)xil nabst nature, disposition
| s
sarta ninanim ringsin v (S) is (O)sinin v (S) attaches to, loves (O)sine nmeas subdivision of the day
cf Grammar / Calendar / Subdivisions ofthe day / Modern timekeeping
siul nanim foxsom nmeas subdivision of the day
cf Grammar / Calendar / Subdivisions ofthe day / Traditional timekeeping
soedra ninanim tablese.an v (S) knows (O) answers (last
clause)se.an v (S) describes (O)senan v (S) is worried by (O)sefxi nabst daytimesecakin ninanim essayseotxe ninanim land, countrysuta desc many, againsur ninanim day, sun
| sh
sha.en nsent magicianshan v (S) goes toward (O)sharin v (S) creates (O)shin nabst how many?sheonin v (S) befriends (O)shun nabst how much?
| n
nyara nanim catna.in v (S) waits for/until (O), tem-
poral verb, ifna.erin v (S) covers, spans (O)napis nabst now, the present, todaynarma nanim parent (animal)nis ninanim facenimin v (S) dances around (O)
nihel ninanim group, organisation,order
nio ninanim point nio-myanehalfway point
nexin v (S) swims in (O)nefi nined firenem desc maleneban v (S) gives something to (O)nerfin v (S) hides from (O)nerita desc suddennel nabst nature, temperament,
dispositionnelpa nsent mind, brainnuiga nanim wolfnuonan v (S) kills (O), (O) diesnuoban v (S) steals from (O)nuobaroen nsent thief
| ng
ngoran v (S) thinks, ponders about(O)
| v
voero nfluid poison
| f
frenye ninanim coinfagan v (S) falls into (O)fi.ik nabst centre, originfisin v (S) obeys (O)fin v (S) joins (O), andfinda desc earlyfirin v touchfire nabst whatfire nabst lightfiul desc femalefiultas ninanim stick, rodfoekoe ninanim spoonfehin v (S) plays with (O)fewin v stand, get upfeoe.ong nabst descriptionfuo ninanim event, occurrence
61
| fx
fxare nabst quote, words, speechfxe ninanim whatfxuruo nfluid water
| fh
fhuomo nabst empathy
| m
myane nabst one halfmakan v (S) eats (O)makara desc emptymasa nsent personman nedib ricemika desc farmina ninanim wallmifa nsent child (offspring)migin v (S) serves (O)mirmeo nanim tonguemiriuk nabst eveningmotan v (S) produces (O)motan v (S) is destroyed tomake, for
(O)mong nanim headmoerum nanim scorpionmek ninanim holemekin v dig a holemexin v (S) gives birth to (O), (O) is
born (S) is not necessarily the mother;this can be either parent
mexe nabst timemesin v (S) raises, takes care of,
tends to (O)mentan v begin, startmente nabst morningmefran v (S) stands on, is on (O)megan v (S) drowns in (O), (O) fills
(S)mepa desc in returnmepin v (S) succeeds at (O), (S)
does something to (O)mepin v err, missmebi nabst shape, structuremebi-pelbeo nabst grammarmeriu ninam opposite side
mel nmeas volume in expressionssuch as mel-yusoe “cupful”
melka desc similarmelkin v (S) imitates (O)meodin v (O) branches from (S), ormutan v (S) recalls (O)mungo nanim rabbit
| d
dantan v (S) is inside (O)dafo ninanim back (body part)dabu nabst life, existencedekem nfluid nitrogendeman v (S) sleepsduoro ninanim pathway
| dy
dyafin v follow (in terms of move-ment; not synonymous with fisin)
| g
gyuonan v (S) laughs at (O)gwesan v (S) founds (O)gitxa desc well (not sick)gis nabst five
| p
pcatsa nabst ground, floorpcen nanim owlprafan v (S) passes (O)prin v hold, carry, instrumental
verbpreome ninanim citypatran v (S) sits at (O)patan v (S) dislikes, objects to, disap-
proves of (O)pace ninanim landmass, domainpotan v (S) chases away (O), (O) flees
from (S)peran v (S) wears, experiences (O)pereo nedib noodlespelbeo nabst sentence, utterancepu.on nanim large animalpunga ninanim knee
62 APPENDIX C. DICTIONARY
| b
bane ninanim yearbacuk nmeas subdivision of the day
cf Grammar / Calendar / Subdivisions ofthe day / Modern timekeeping
bisin v (S) walks to (O)beha nfluid seabus nabst future, next (time period)buongan v (S) succumbs to their im-
pulsesbuomo nsent adult person
| h
hriden ninanim bookha.ar nabst spring (season)hasno ninanim nosehaspe ninanim leafhacuo ninanim statuehin v (S) claims that (O)hirin v (S) is named (O)hiuma nedib foodhoka ninanim carthefan v (S) asks for, requests (O)hemta desc largeheokan v transgress, commit a
crimehuoma desc evil, malicious
| y
yatsan v (S) enslaves (O)yan v (S) sees (O), because
yan[O=sur] (“see the sun”) = “wish”yunan v (S) raises, lifts (O)
| c
casan v discipline, punish, constrain
cin v (S) allows (O)
| r
ra.itan v (S) is beside (O)rata nined grassrataba ninanim blade of grassrakan v (S) climbs, rises in (O)ritsin v (S) is (O) oldrilin ninanim waveriuk ninanim starrefan v (S) speaks to (O), (S) asks
(O)refin v (S) spreads (O)relka ninanim placereosa desc friendly, kind, consider-
ate, niceruka desc laterukoe nabst nighttimerusoe ninanim cuprumui nmeas tidal dayruoto nined gold
| j
japsi nfluid soupjace nanim fishjedyan v (S) perceives (O) non-
visually
| w
welse nined forest
| l
lek nabst languagelekeba ninanim a language