consti in gen

8/10/2019 Consti in Gen

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Constitution

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other uses, see Constitution (disambiguation).

A constitutionis a set of fundamental principles or established precedents according to which astateor other organization is governed.[1]These rules together make up, i.e. constitute, what theentity is. hen these principles are written down into a single document or set of legaldocuments, those documents may be said to embody a writtenconstitution! if they are writtendown in a single comprehensive document, it is said to embody a codifiedconstitution.

"onstitutions concern different levels of organizations, from sovereign states to companies andunincorporated associations. A treatywhich establishes an international organizationis also itsconstitution, in that it would define how that organization is constituted. ithin states, aconstitution defines the principles upon which the state is based, the procedure in which laws are

made and by whom. #ome constitutions, especially codified constitutions, also act as limiters ofstate power, by establishing lines which a state$s rulers cannot cross, such as fundamental rights.An e%ample is the constitution of the &nited #tates of America.

George Washington at Constitutional Conventionof 1! signing of the ".#.

Constitution.

The "onstitution of 'ndiais the longest written constitution of any sovereign countryin theworld,[(]containing ))) articles in (( parts,[*][)]1( schedulesand 11+ amendments, with 11,*-words in its /nglish0languagetranslation,[]while the &nited #tates "onstitutionis the shortestwritten constitution, at articles and ( amendments.[-]

Contents

1 $tymology % General features

& 'istory and development
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o &.1 remodern constitutions

&.1.1 *ncient +esopotamia

&.1.% *ntiuity

&.1.& +iddle *ges

&.1.- rouois /Great 0a of eace/

o &.% +odern constitutions

&.%.1 2emocratic constitutions

- rinciples of constitutional design

3 Governmental constitutions

o 3.1 4ey features

3.1.1 Classi5cation

3.1.% Codi5cation

3.1.%.1 Codi5ed constitution

3.1.%.% "ncodi5ed constitution

3.1.%.& Written versus unritten6 codi5ed versusuncodi5ed

3.1.& $ntrenchment

3.1.&.1 *bsolutely unmodi5able articles

3.1.- 2istribution of sovereignty 3.1.3 #eparation of poers

3.1.7 0ines of accountability

3.1. #tate of emergency

o 3.% Fa8ade constitutions

7 Constitutional courts

#ee also

! 9eferences

: $;ternal links

Etymology

The term constitutioncomes through 2renchfrom the 3atinword constitutio, used forregulations and orders, such as the imperialenactments 4constitutiones principis5 edicta,mandata, decreta, rescripta6.[]3ater, the term was widely used in canon lawfor an important
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution#Pre-modern_constitutionshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution#Ancient_Mesopotamiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution#Antiquityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution#Middle_Ageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution#Iroquois_.22Great_Law_of_Peace.22http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution#Modern_constitutionshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution#Democratic_constitutionshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution#Principles_of_constitutional_designhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution#Governmental_constitutionshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution#Key_featureshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution#Classificationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution#Codificationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution#Codified_constitutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution#Uncodified_constitutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution#Written_versus_unwritten.3B_codified_versus_uncodifiedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution#Written_versus_unwritten.3B_codified_versus_uncodifiedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution#Entrenchmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution#Absolutely_unmodifiable_articleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution#Distribution_of_sovereigntyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution#Separation_of_powershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution#Lines_of_accountabilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution#State_of_emergencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution#Fa.C3.A7ade_constitutionshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution#Constitutional_courtshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution#See_alsohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution#Referenceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution#External_linkshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_(language)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Emperorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Emperorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution#cite_note-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution#cite_note-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canon_lawhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution#Pre-modern_constitutionshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution#Ancient_Mesopotamiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution#Antiquityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution#Middle_Ageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution#Iroquois_.22Great_Law_of_Peace.22http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution#Modern_constitutionshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution#Democratic_constitutionshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution#Principles_of_constitutional_designhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution#Governmental_constitutionshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution#Key_featureshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution#Classificationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution#Codificationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution#Codified_constitutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution#Uncodified_constitutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution#Written_versus_unwritten.3B_codified_versus_uncodifiedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution#Written_versus_unwritten.3B_codified_versus_uncodifiedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution#Entrenchmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution#Absolutely_unmodifiable_articleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution#Distribution_of_sovereigntyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution#Separation_of_powershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution#Lines_of_accountabilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution#State_of_emergencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution#Fa.C3.A7ade_constitutionshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution#Constitutional_courtshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution#See_alsohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution#Referenceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution#External_linkshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_(language)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Emperorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution#cite_note-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canon_law


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determination, especially a decree issued by the 7ope, now referred to as an apostolicconstitution.

General features

8enerally, every modern written constitution confers specific powers to an organization orinstitutional entity, established upon the primary condition that it abide by the said constitution$slimitations. According to #cott 8ordon, author of Controlling the State: Constitutionalism fromAncient Athens to Todaya political organization is constitutional to the e%tent that it 9contain[s]institutionalizedmechanisms of power control for the protection of the interests and libertiesofthe citizenry, including those that may be in the minority.9[+]

The 3atin term ultra viresdescribes activities of officials within an organization or polity that falloutside the constitutional or statutory authority of those officials. 2or e%ample, a students$ unionmay be prohibited as an organization from engaging in activities not concerning students! if theunion becomes involved in non0student activities these activities are considered ultra viresof the

union$s charter, and nobody would be compelled by the charter to follow them. An e%ample fromthe constitutional law of sovereign stateswould be a provincial government in a federal statetrying to legislate in an area e%clusively enumerated to the federal government in theconstitution, such as ratifying a treaty. Ultra viresgives a legal :ustification for the forcedcessation of such action, which might be enforced by the people with the support of a decision ofthe:udiciary,in a case of:udicial review.A violation of rights by an official would be ultra viresbecause a 4constitutional6 right is a restriction on the powers of government, and therefore thatofficial would be e%ercising powers he doesn$t have.

'n most but not all modern states the constitution has supremacy over ordinary#tatutory law4see&ncodified constitutionbelow6! in such states when an official act is unconstitutional, i.e. it is

not a power granted to the government by the constitution, that act is null and void, and thenullification is ab initio, that is, from inception, not from the date of the finding. 't was never9law9, even though, if it had been a statute or statutory provision, it might have been adoptedaccording to the procedures for adopting legislation. #ometimes the problem is not that a statuteis unconstitutional, but the application of it is, on a particular occasion, and a court may decidethat while there are ways it could be applied that are constitutional, that instance was not allowedor legitimate. 'n such a case, only the application may be ruled unconstitutional. ;istorically, theremedy for such violations have been petitions for common law writs,such as quo warranto.

History and development

Pre-modern constitutions


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Ancient Mesopotamia

2etail from 'ammurabi>s steleshos him receiving the las of ?abylonfrom the

seated sun deity.

/%cavations in modern0day 'ra". 7erhapsthe earliest prototype for a law of government, this document itself has not yet been discovered!however it is known that it allowed some rights to his citizens. 2or e%ample, it is known that it

relieved ta% for widows and orphans, and protected the poor from theusuryof the rich.

After that, many governments ruled by special codes of written laws. The oldest such documentstill known to e%ist seems to be the "ode of &r0?ammuof &r4ca(== >"6. #ome of the better0known ancient law codes include the code of3ipit0'shtarof 'sin,the code of ;ammurabiof>abylonia,the ;ittite code,the Assyrian codeand@osaic law.

2iagram illustrating the classi5cation of constitutions by *ristotle.

Antiquity

'n -(1 >" a scribe named racocodified the cruel oral laws of thecity0stateofAthens! this codeprescribed the death penaltyfor many offences 4nowadays very severe rules are often called9raconian96. 'n ) >" #olon, the ruler of Athens, created the new Solonian Constitution. 'teased the burden of the workers, and determined that membership of the ruling class was to be
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hammurabihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stelehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babylonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun_deityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iraqhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iraqhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_de_Sarzechttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_de_Sarzechttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code_of_justicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urukaginahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urukaginahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lagashhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usuryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usuryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usuryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code_of_Ur-Nammuhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lipit-Ishtarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lipit-Ishtarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lipit-Ishtarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code_of_Hammurabihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babyloniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babyloniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hittite_lawshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hittite_lawshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assyrian_lawhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assyrian_lawhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/613_Commandmentshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/613_Commandmentshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/613_Commandmentshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Draco_(lawgiver)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Draco_(lawgiver)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City-statehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City-statehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athenshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athenshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death_penaltyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solonian_Constitutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Aristotle%27s_constitutions_diagram.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hammurabi.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hammurabihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stelehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babylonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun_deityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iraqhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_de_Sarzechttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code_of_justicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urukaginahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lagashhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usuryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code_of_Ur-Nammuhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lipit-Ishtarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code_of_Hammurabihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babyloniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hittite_lawshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assyrian_lawhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/613_Commandmentshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Draco_(lawgiver)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City-statehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athenshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death_penaltyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solonian_Constitution


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based on wealth 4plutocracy6, rather than by birth 4aristocracy6. "leisthenesagain reformed theAthenian constitution and set it on a democratic footing in =+ >".

Aristotle4ca*= >"6 was one of the first in recorded history to make a formal distinctionbetween ordinary law and constitutional law, establishing ideas of constitution and

constitutionalism, and attempting to classify different forms of constitutional government. Themost basic definition he used to describe a constitution in general terms was 9the arrangement ofthe offices in a state9. 'n his works Constitution of Athens,Politics, andNicomachean thicshee%plores different constitutions of his day, including those of Athens,#parta,and"arthage. ;eclassified both what he regarded as good and what he regarded as bad constitutions, and came tothe conclusion that the best constitution was a mi%ed system, including monarchic, aristocratic,and democratic elements. ;e also distinguished between citizens, who had the right to participatein the state, and non0citizens and slaves, who did not.

The Bomans first codified their constitution in )= >" as the Twelve Tables.They operatedunder a series of laws that were added from time to time, butBoman lawwas never reorganised

into a single code until the Code! Theodosianus4A )*+6! later, in the /astern /mpire theCode! repetit" pr"lectionis4*)6 was highly influential throughout /urope. This was followedin the east by theclogaof 3eo ''' the 'saurian4)=6 and the#asilicaof>asil '4++6.

Thedicts of Asho$aestablished constitutional principles for the *rd century >" @auryaking$srule in Ancient 'ndia. 2or constitutional principles almost lost to anti


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@edina6, including @uslims, Gews, andpagans.[][1=]The document was drawn up with thee%plicit concern of bringing to an end the bitter inter tribal fighting between the clans of the Aws4Aus6 and Fhazra:within @edina. To this effect it instituted a number of rights andresponsibilities for the @uslim, Gewish, and pagan communities of @edina bringing them withinthe fold of one communityXthe &mmah.[11]The precise dating of the "onstitution of @edina

remains debated but generally scholars agree it was written shortly after the ;i:ra4-((6.[1(]

'teffectively established the first 'slamic state. The "onstitution established5 the security of thecommunity, religious freedoms, the role of @edina as a haramor sacred place 4barring allviolence and weapons6, the security of women, stable tribal relations within @edina, a ta%system for supporting the community in time of conflict, parameters for e%ogenous politicalalliances, a system for granting protection of individuals, a :udicial system for resolving disputes,and also regulated the paying of>lood money4the payment between families or tribes for theslaying of an individual in lieu of le% talionis6.

'n ales, the Cyfraith ,ywelwas codified by ;ywel dac. )(Y=.

ThePravda -aroslava, originally combined by Waroslav the isethe8rand 7rince of Fiev, wasgranted to 8reat ?ovgorodaround 1=1, and in 1=) was incorporated into the'uss$ayaPravda, that became the law for all of Fievan Bus.'t survived only in later editions of the 1thcentury.

Copy of Magna Cartafrom 1%:

'n /ngland, ;enry '$sproclamation of the "harter of 3ibertiesin 11== bound the king for thefirst time in his treatment of the clergy and the nobility. This idea was e%tended and refined bythe /nglish barony when they forced Fing Gohnto sign.agna Cartain 1(1. The mostimportant single article of the.agna Carta, related to 9habeas corpus9, provided that the kingwas not permitted to imprison, outlaw, e%ile or kill anyone at a whimXthere must be due processof law first. This article, Article *, of the.agna Cartaread5
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No free man shall be arrested/ or imprisoned/ or deprived of his property/ or outlawed/ or e!iled/

or in any way destroyed/ nor shall we go against him or send against him/ unless by legal

0udgement of his peers/ or by the law of the land1

This provision became the cornerstone of /nglish liberty after that point. The social contractin

the original case was between the king and the nobility, but was gradually e%tended to all of thepeople. 't led to the system of "onstitutional @onarchy, with further reforms shifting the balanceof power from the monarchy and nobility to the;ouse of "ommons.

The?omocanonof #aint #ava4#erbian5 Z\^_`akonopravilo6[1*][1)][1]was the first#erbianconstitution from 1(1. This legal act was well developed. #t. #ava$s ?omocanonwasthe compilation of "ivil law, based on Boman 3awand "anon law, based on /cumenical"ouncilsand its basic purpose was to organize functioning of the young #erbian kingdomandthe #erbian church. #aint #ava began the work on the #erbian ?omocanon in 1(=+ while beingat @ount Athos, using The Nomocanon in )ourteen Titles, Synopsis of Stefan the fesian,Nomocanon of2ohn Scholasticus, /cumenical "ouncils$ documents, which he modified with the

canonical commentaries of Aristinos and Gohn onaras,local church meetings, rules of the;oly2athers, the law of @oses, translation of 7rohiron and the >yzantine emperors$?ovellae4mostwere taken from Gustinian$s ?ovellae6. The ?omocanon was completely new compilation of civiland canonical regulations, taken from the>yzantinesources, but completed and reformed by #t.#ava to function properly in #erbia. >eside decrees that organized the life of church, there arevarious norms regarding civil life, most of them were taken from 7rohiron.3egal transplantsofBoman0>yzantine lawbecame the basis of the #erbian medieval law. The essence ofakonopravilo was based on "orpus 'uris "ivilis.

#tefan uan,/mperor of #erbs and 8reeks, enacted uan$s "ode4#erbian5 ^Z\^\uanov akonik6[1-]in #erbia, in two state congresses5 in 1*) in #kop:eand in 1*)

in #erres. 't regulated all social spheres, so it was the second #erbian constitution, after #t. #ava$s?omocanon 4akonopravilo6. The "ode was based on Boman0>yzantine law. The legaltransplantingis notable with the articles 11 and 1( of uan$s "ode, which regulated the:uridical independence. They were taken from the >yzantine code >asilika4book D'', 1, 1-Y16.

'n 1(((, ;ungarian Fing Andrew ''issued the 8olden >ull of 1(((.

>etween 1((= and 1(*=, a #a%onadministrator, /ike von Bepgow,composed theSachsenspiegel,which became the supreme law used in parts of 8ermany as late as 1==.

'n 1+, #. Fouyatj reconstructed from oral tradition what he claims is a 1)th0century charter of

the @ali /mpire, called the3ourou$an )ouga.

[1]

Around 1()=, the "optic/gyptian "hristian writer, $Abul 2ada$il 'bn al0$Assal, wrote the)ethaNegestin Arabic. $'bn al0Assal took his laws partly from apostolic writings and @osaic law, andpartly from the former >yzantinecodes. There are a few historical records claiming that this lawcode was translated into8e$ezand entered /thiopia around 1)= in the reign of ara Wa


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#arsa engelbeginning in 1-*. The)etha Negestremained the supreme law in /thiopia until1*1, when a modern0style "onstitutionwas first granted by /mperor ;aile #elassie'.

The 8olden >ull of 1*-was a decree issued by a'eichstagin ?uremberg headed by /mperor"harles 'Dthat fi%ed, for a period of more than four hundred years, an important aspect of the

constitutional structure of the ;oly Boman /mpire.

'n "hina, the ;ongwu /mperorcreated and refined a document he calledAncestral 4n0unctions4first published in 1*, revised twice more before his death in 1*+6. These rules served in avery real sense as a constitution for the @ing ynastyfor the ne%t (= years.


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;istorians including onald 8rinde,[1]>ruce Gohansen[(=]and others[(1]believe that the 'ro


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'nstrument of 8overnment. This formed the basis of government for the short lived republicfrom 1-* to 1- by providing a legal rationale for the increasing power of "romwell, after7arliament consistently failed to govern effectively.

The constitution set up a state council consisting of (1 members while e%ecutive authority was

vested in the office of 93ord 7rotector of the "ommonwealth9! this position was designated as anon0hereditary life appointment.

The 'nstrument had difficulty in gaining widespread acceptance as it was widely re:ected by boththe radicals and Boyalists, and 7arliament refused to accept it as the basis of its authority. 't waseventually replaced by the even more short0lived 9;umble 7etition and Advice9 in @ay 1-which finally met its demise in con:unction with the death of "romwell and the Bestoration.

Agreements and Constitutions of %aws and )reedoms of the 6apori7ian ,ostwas the first/uropean constitution in a modern sense.[(]'t was written in 11= by 7ylyp Crlyk, hetmanof theaporozhian ;ost.This &Constitution of Pylyp 8rly$&4as it is widely known6 was written to

establish a free aporozhian0&krainian Bepublic, with the support of "harles '' of #weden.'tis notable in that it established a democratic standard for the separation of powers in governmentbetween the legislative, e%ecutive, and :udiciary branches, well before the publication of@ontesritish colonies in ?orth America that were to become the 1* original &nited #tates,adopted their own constitutions in 1- and 1, during the American Bevolution 4and beforethe later Articles of "onfederationand &nited #tates "onstitution6, with the e%ceptions of@assachusetts, "onnecticut and Bhode 'sland. The "ommonwealth of @assachusettsadopted its"onstitution in 1+=, the oldest still0functioning constitution of any &.#. state! while "onnecticutand Bhode 'sland officially continued to operate under their old colonial charters, until theyadopted their first state constitutions in 1+1+ and 1+)*, respectively.

emocratic constitutions

hat is sometimes called the &enlightened constitution&model was developed by philosophers

of the Age of /nlightenmentsuch as Thomas ;obbes, Gean0Gac


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May 3rd Constitution(painting byAan +ateBko, 1!:1). olish4ing #tanisa *ugust

(left, in regal erminetrimmed cloak), enters #t. Aohn>s Cathedral, here #eBm

deputiesill sear to uphold the ne Constitution6 in background, Warsa>s 9oyal

Castle, here the Constitution has Bust been adopted.

?e%t were the 7olishY3ithuanian "ommonwealth"onstitution of @ay *, 11,[*1][*(][**]

and the2rench "onstitution of #eptember *, 11.

Cn @arch 1, 1+1( a enlightened constitutionwas ratified in#painby aparliamentgathered in"adiz, the only #panish continental city which was safe of2rench occupation. The #panish"onstitution served as a model for other liberal constitutions of several#outh0/uropeanand3atin Americannations like, for e%ample, 7ortuguese "onstitution of 1+((, constitutions ofvarious 'talianstates during "arbonarirevolts 4i.e., in the Fingdom of the Two #icilies6, the?orwegian constitution of 1+1), or the @e%ican "onstitution of 1+().[*)]

'n >razil,the "onstitution of 1+() e%pressed the option for the monarchy as political system

after >razilian 'ndependence. The leader of the national emancipation process was the7ortuguese prince 7edro ',elder son of the king of 7ortugal. 7edro was crowned in 1+(( as firstemperor of >razil. The country was ruled by "onstitutional monarchy until 1++, when finallyadopted the Bepublican model.

'n enmark, as a result of the?apoleonic ars, theabsolute monarchylost its personalpossession of?orwayto another absolute monarchy,#weden. ;owever the ?orwegiansmanaged to infuse a radically democratic and liberalconstitutionin 1+1), adopting many facetsfrom the American constitution and the revolutionary 2rench ones! but maintaining a hereditarymonarchlimited by the constitution, like the #panish one.

The #erbian revolutioninitially led to a proclamation of a proto0constitution in 1+11! the full0fledged "onstitution of #erbia followed few decades later, in 1+*.

The "onstitution of "anadacame into force on Guly 1, 1+- as the >ritish ?orth America Act, anact of the >ritish 7arliament. The >?A Act unified the colonies of "anada /ast 4uebec6,"anada est 4Cntario6,?ova #cotiaand?ew >runswickinto the self0governing ominion of"anada. Cver a century later, the >?A Act was patriated to the "anadian 7arliament andaugmented with the "anadian "harter of Bights and 2reedoms. #ince then, the written
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constitution as a whole has been known as the Constitution Acts/ 9;< to 9=>, while the original>?A Act is called the Constitution Act/ 9;,"anada$s constitution also has unwritten elements based in common law and convention.[*-]"anadian author and philosopher Gohn Balston #aul describes the "anadian "onstitution as 9thesecond0oldest working constitution in the world.9[*]

Principles of constitutional design

After tribal people first began to live in cities and establish nations, many of these functionedaccording to unwritten customs, while some developed autocratic, even tyrannical monarchs,who ruled by decree, or mere personal whim. #uch rule led some thinkers to take the positionthat what mattered was not the design of governmental institutions and operations, as much asthe character of the rulers. This view can be seen in 7lato,who called for rule by 9philosopher0kings.9[*+]3ater writers, such as Aristotle,"iceroand7lutarch, would e%amine designs forgovernment from a legal and historical standpoint.

The Benaissancebrought a series of political philosophers who wrote implied criticisms of thepractices of monarchs and sought to identify principles of constitutional design that would belikely to yield more effective and :ust governance from their viewpoints. This began with revivalof the Boman law of nationsconcept[*]and its application to the relations among nations, andthey sought to establish customary 9laws of war and peace9 [)=]to ameliorate wars and make themless likely. This led to considerations of what authority monarchs or other officials have and don$thave, from where that authority derives, and the remedies for the abuse of such authority.[)1]

A seminal :uncture in this line of discourse arose in /ngland from the "ivil ar, the"romwellian7rotectorate, the writings of Thomas ;obbes, #amuel Butherford, the 3evellers,Gohn @ilton, and Games ;arrington, leading to the debate between Bobert 2ilmer, arguing for the

divine right of monarchs, on the one side, and on the other, ;enry ?eville, Games Tyrrell,Algernon #idney, and Gohn 3ocke. hat arose from the latter was a concept of governmentbeing erected on the foundations of first, a state of nature governed by natural laws, then a stateof society, established by a social contract or compact, which bring underlying natural or sociallaws, before governments are formally established on them as foundations.

Along the way several writers e%amined how the design of government was important, even ifthe government were headed by a monarch. They also classified various historical e%amples ofgovernmental designs, typically into democracies, aristocracies, or monarchies, and consideredhow :ust and effective each tended to be and why, and how the advantages of each might beobtained by combining elements of each into a more comple% design that balanced competing

tendencies. #ome, such as @ontes


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The later writings of Crestes >rownson[)(]would try to e%plain what constitutional designerswere trying to do. According to >rownson there are, in a sense, three 9constitutions9 involved5The first the constitution of naturethat includes all of what was called 9natural law.9 The secondis the constitution of society, an unwritten and commonly understood set of rules for the societyformed by a social contract before it establishes a government, by which it establishes the third, a

constitution of government. The second would include such elements as the making of decisionsby public conventionscalled bypublic noticeand conducted by established rules of procedure./ach constitution must be consistent with, and derive its authority from, the ones before it, aswell as from a historical act of society formation or constitutional ratification. >rownson arguedthat a stateis a society with effective dominion over a well0defined territory, that consent to awell0designed constitution of government arises from presence on that territory, and that it ispossible for provisions of a written constitution of government to be 9unconstitutional9 if theyare inconsistent with the constitutions of nature or society. >rownson argued that it is notratification alone that makes a written constitution of government legitimate, but that it must alsobe competently designed and applied.

Cther writers

[)*]

have argued that such considerations apply not only to all national constitutionsof government, but also to the constitutions of private organizations, that it is not an accident thatthe constitutions that tend to satisfy their members contain certain elements, as a minimum, orthat their provisions tend to become very similar as they are amended after e%perience with theiruse. 7rovisions that give rise to certain kinds of


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@ost commonly, the term constitutionrefers to a set of rules and principles that define the natureand e%tent of government. @ost constitutions seek to regulate the relationship betweeninstitutions of the state, in a basic sense the relationship between the e%ecutive, legislature andthe :udiciary, but also the relationship of institutions within those branches. 2or e%ample,e%ecutive branches can be divided into a head of government, government

departmentsministries, e%ecutive agencies and a civil serviceadministration. @ost constitutionsalso attempt to define the relationship between individuals and the state, and to establish thebroad rights of individual citizens. 't is thus the most basic law of a territory from which all theother laws and rules are hierarchically derived! in some territories it is in fact called 9>asic 3aw9.

Key features

The following are features of democratic constitutions that have been identified by politicalscientists to e%ist, in one form or another, in virtually all national constitutions.

#lassi$cation

%ype &orm (ample

Codi5ed in single act (document)Most of the world

constitutions.

"ncodi5

edfully ritten (in fe documents) #an +arino, #audi *rabia

"ncodi5

ed

partially unritten (see constitutional

convention)Canada, srael, DE, "4

#odi$cation

A fundamental classification is codification or lack of codification. A codified constitution is onethat is contained in a single document, which is the single source of constitutional law in a state.An uncodified constitution is one that is not contained in a single document, consisting of severaldifferent sources, which may be written or unwritten! see constitutional convention.

Codified constitution

@ost states in the world have codified constitutions.

"odified constitutions are often the product of some dramatic political change, such as arevolution. The process by which a country adopts a constitution is closely tied to the historicaland political conte%t driving this fundamental change. The legitimacy 4and often the longevity6of codified constitutions has often been tied to the process by which they are initially adoptedand some scholars havepointed outthat high constitutionalturnoverwithin a given country mayitself be detrimental to separation of powers and the rule of law.
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#tates that have codified constitutions normally give the constitution supremacy over ordinarystatutelaw. That is, if there is any conflict between a legal statute and the codified constitution,all or part of the statute can be declared ultra viresby a court, and struck down asunconstitutional.'n addition, e%ceptional procedures are often reritish constitutional law.

Written versus unwritten; codified versus uncodified
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#ome constitutions are largely, but not wholly, codified. 2or e%ample, in the "onstitution ofAustralia, most of its fundamental political principles and regulations concerning the relationshipbetween branches of government, and concerning the government and the individual are codifiedin a single document, the "onstitution of the "ommonwealth of Australia. ;owever, the presenceof statutes with constitutional significance, namely the#tatute of estminster, as adopted by the

"ommonwealth in the #tatute of estminster Adoption Act 1)(, and the Australia Act 1+-means that Australia$s constitution is not contained in a single constitutional document. 't meansthe "onstitution of Australia is uncodified, it also contain constitutional conventions,thus ispartially unwritten.

The "onstitution of "anada, which evolved from the >ritish ?orth America Actsuntil severedfrom nominal >ritish control by the "anada Act 1+(4analogous to the Australia Act 1+-6, is asimilar e%ample. "anada$s constitutionconsists of almost *= different statutes.

The terms written constitutionand codified constitutionare often used interchangeably, as areunwritten constitutionand uncodified constitution, although this usage is technically inaccurate.

A codified constitution is a written constitution contained in a single document, states that do nothave such a document have uncodified constitutions but not entirely unwritten constitutions sincemuch of an uncodified constitution is usually written in laws, such as the>asic 3aws of 'sraelorthe 7arliament Actsof the &nited Fingdom.

ntrenchment


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The presence or lack of entrenchment is a fundamental feature of constitutions. An entrenchedconstitution cannot be altered in any way by a legislature as part of its normal businessconcerning ordinary statutory laws, but can only be amended by a different and more onerousprocedure. There may be a re


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!solutely unmodifia!le articles

The strongest level of entrenchmente%ists in those constitutions that state that some of their mostfundamental principles are absolute, i.e. certain articles may not be amended under anycircumstances. An amendment of a constitution that is made consistently with that constitution,e%cept that it violates the absolute non0modifiability, can be called an unconstitutionalconstitutional law. &ltimately it is always possible for a constitution to be overthrown by internalor e%ternal force, for e%ample, a revolution4perhaps claiming to be :ustified by theright torevolution6 or invasion. 'n the "onstitution of 'ndia, the #upreme "ourt has created the octrineof >asic #tructure in Fesavananda >harti$s case 41*6 stating that the essential features of the>asic structure cannot be amended by the 7arliament. The "ourt has identified :udicial review,independence of Gudiciary, free and fair election, core of 2undamental Bights as a few of theessential features which are unamendable. ;owever, the #upreme "ourt did not identify specificprovisions which are in the category of absolute entrenchment. A critical analysis of the octrineof >asic #tructure appears in 7rofessor @.F. >handari$s book#asic Structure of 4ndianConstitution + A Critical 'econsideration.

An e%ample of absolute unmodifiability is found in the 8erman constitution.Articles 1 and (=protect human dignity, human rights, democracy, rule of law, federal and social state principles,and the people$s right of resistance as a last resort against an attempt to abolish the constitutionalorder. Article , #ection *states that these principles cannot be changed, even according to themethods of amendment defined elsewhere in the document, until a new constitution comes intoeffect.

Another e%ample is the "onstitution of ;onduras, which has an article stating that the articleitself and certain other articles cannot be changed in any circumstances. Article *) of the;onduras "onstitution asserts this unmodifiability, stating, 9't is not possible to reform, in anycase, the preceding article, the present article, the constitutional articles referring to the form ofgovernment, to the national territory, to the presidential period, the prohibition to serve again as7resident of the Bepublic, the citizen who has performed under any title in conse


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devolve more and more power to sub0national governments until the state functions in practicemuch like a federal state.

A federal state has a central structure with at most a small amount of territory mainly containingthe institutions of the federal government, and several regions 4calledstates,provinces, etc.6

which compose the territory of the whole state. #overeignty is divided between the centre and theconstituent regions. The constitutions of "anada and the &nited #tates establish federal states,with power divided between the federal government and the provinces or states. /ach of theregions may in turn have its own constitution 4of unitary nature6.

A confederal state comprises again several regions, but the central structure has only limitedcoordinating power, and sovereignty is located in the regions. "onfederal constitutions are rare,and there is often dispute to whether so0called 9confederal9 states are actually federal.

To some e%tent a group of states which do not constitute a federation as such may by treatiesandaccords give up parts of their sovereignty to a supranationalentity. 2or e%ample the countries

constituting the /uropean &nionhave agreed to abide by some &nion0wide measures whichrestrict their absolute sovereignty in some ways, e.g., the use of the metric system ofmeasurementinstead of national units previously used.

+eparation of poers

+ain article= #eparation of poers

"onstitutions usually e%plicitly divide power between various branches of government. Thestandard model, described by the >aron de @ontes


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+tate of emergency

+ain article= #tate of emergency

@any constitutions allow the declaration under e%ceptional circumstances of some form of stateof emergency during which some rights and guarantees are suspended. This deliberate loophole

can be and has been abused to allow a government to suppress dissent without regard for humanrightsXsee the article on state of emergency.

"a#ade constitutions

#ee also= Constitutionalism

'talian political theorist 8iovanni #artorinoted the e%istence of national constitutions which are afaade for authoritarian sources of power. hile such documents may e%press respect forhumanrightsor establish an independent :udiciary, they may be ignored when the government feelsthreatened, or never put into practice. An e%treme e%ample was the "onstitution of the #oviet

&nionthat on paper supported freedom of assemblyand freedom of speech! however, citizenswho transgressed unwritten limits were summarily imprisoned. The e%ample demonstrates thatthe protections and benefits of a constitution are ultimately provided not through its written termsbut through deference by government and society to its principles. A constitution may changefrom being real to a faade and back again as democratic and autocratic governments succeedeach other.

Constitutional courts

Further information= Constitutional courtand Constitutionality

"onstitutions are often, but by no means always, protected by a legal body whose :ob it is tointerpret those constitutions and, where applicable, declare void e%ecutive and legislative actswhich infringe the constitution. 'n some countries, such as 8ermany, this function is carried outby a dedicated constitutional court which performs this 4and only this6 function. 'n othercountries, such as 'reland, the ordinary courts may perform this function in addition to their otherresponsibilities. hile elsewhere, like in the &nited Fingdom, the concept of declaring an act tobe unconstitutional does not e%ist.

A constitutional violation is an action or legislative act that is :udged by a constitutional courttobe contrary to the constitution, that is, unconstitutional. An e%ample of constitutional violation by

the e%ecutive could be a public office holder who acts outside the powers granted to that officeby a constitution. An e%ample of constitutional violation by the legislature is an attempt to pass alaw that would contradict the constitution, without first going through the proper constitutionalamendment process.

#ome countries, mainly those with uncodified constitutions, have no such courts at all. 2ore%ample the &nited Fingdomhas traditionally operated under the principle ofparliamentary
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_of_emergencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loopholehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_of_emergencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitutionalismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni_Sartorihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni_Sartorihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_rightshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_rightshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_rightshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Soviet_Unionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Soviet_Unionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom_of_assemblyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom_of_speechhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_prisonerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitutional_courthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitutionalityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Irelandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitutional_courthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliamentary_sovereigntyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_of_emergencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loopholehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_of_emergencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitutionalismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni_Sartorihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_rightshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_rightshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Soviet_Unionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Soviet_Unionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom_of_assemblyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom_of_speechhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_prisonerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitutional_courthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitutionalityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Irelandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitutional_courthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliamentary_sovereignty


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sovereigntyunder which the laws passed by &nited Fingdom 7arliamentcould not be

consti in gen

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