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Artic/e RAM

Socio-spatial distance duringthe service delivery process:the case of restaurants

Amélie ClauzelUniversité Paris I Panthéon-Sorbonne, Laboratoire PRISM, France

Caroline RichéLaboratoire LaRAlICD, France

Recherche et Applications en Marketing -!"#l$Association Francaise %& Marketing, !' "

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Abstract/his research highlights the e00ects o0 socio-spatial %istance bet1een 0rontline e2plo3ees, c&sto2ers an% co-clients inresta&rants on the %&ration an% e4pense o0 the cons&2ption e4perience* Sit&ations in 1hich all those involve% are ver3close to one another 5intr&sion6 re%&ce both o0 these variables* /he a&thors note a pre0erence 0or positions re2ove% both 0ro2 sta00 an% 0ro2 0ello1 c&sto2ers, especiall3 in the case o0 in%ivi%&als cons&2ing as part o0 a gro&p* Fo&r interactional service sit&ations - intr&sion, convivialit3, %iscretion an% col%ness - are interprete% accor%ing to c&sto2er gro&p si7es*

ey!ordscons&2er, cons&2ption %&ration, 0ello1 c&sto2ers, 0rontline e2plo3ees, resta&rant, socio-spatial %istan ce,spen%ing, service

A cohesive space in which tables and places intended for customers are laid out. A balance must be struck between the need for profitability and a comfortablewelcome with sufficient space for efficient service and without inconveniencing the customers.'

/he co22ercial %isco&rse o0 this cons&ltanc3 0ir2speciali7ing in the spatialla3o&t o0 resta&rants re0lectsthe challenges associate% 1ith resta&rant reven&e2anage2ent an% $e4periential %eliver3$ in ter2s o0 service* /hese co22ents acc&ratel3 re0lect the ver3%e0inition o0 the service e4perience in a resta&rant, base% not onl3 on the c&linar3 o00er b&t also on thesocial 0actors that %eter2ine the service

relationship an% at2osphere in the resta&rant 5R3&an% 8an, !' 9 :alter, !'' 6* /he3 also 2irror aca-%e2ic an% 2anagerial conce2s in respect o0 non-verbal co22&nication bet1een 0rontline e2plo3eesan% the other people present* /he literat&re hasobserve% that non-verbal ele2ents have a strongin0l&ence on cons&2er behavio&r 5;ono2a an%Fel%er,

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the st&%3 o0 the ph3sical %istance establishe% bet1eenin%ivi%&als as the3 interact* /his is 1hat theanthropologist 8all 5

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Table l. (vervie1 o0 the literat&re on the e00ects on behavio&r o0 %istance bet1een sta00 an% c&sto2ers*

;ehavio&ral variables 4planator3 variables(+) positive link 5-6 negative link 5JS6 non-signi0icant link

Stage5s6 o0 the interaction st&%ie% an%conte4t

/ip given 5French conte4t6 (+) Forear2 to&che% 5 to ! secon%s6

(+) Ar2 brie0l3 to&che% 5vs* no contact6 As pro%&ct catalog&e 1as being presente% at beginning o0 e4peri2ent 58ornik ReG&est 2a%e to in%ivi%&als %&ring s&rve35Patterson et al*, < ?6

(+) Ar2 brie0l3 to&che% 5vs* no contact6 As pro%&ct catalog&e 1as being presente% at beginning o0 e4peri2ent58ornik A2o&nt o0 tipgiven 0or service

(+) Short ph3sical %istance o0 less thanCo&rte %istance ph3siG&e " c2 5vs* ="-+" c26

(+) :aiter leans in 5vs*straight post& re6

(+) :aiter sG&ats %o1n+ closeness bet1eeapproche2ent bet1een 0aces an%vis&al contact

(+) Short ph3sical %istance o0 less than "c25vs* ="-+" c26

(+) 8an% or sho&l%er to&che% 5vs* notactile contact6

5JS6 Forear2 to&che% 5 -! s6

/i2e spent

Spen%ing

5JS6 /o&ch 5vs* no to&ch6

First contact, or%er taken in bar5France6 5>&ég&en an% acob, !''"6

(r%er taken in resta&rant 5France6 5Hacob an%>&ég&en, !' !6

(r%er taken in resta&rant5Davis etal*, &ég&en an% acob, !''"6

Invitation 0ro2 ven%or to taste con%i2ents at2arket 5France65>&ég&en an% acob, !''?6

*ther re+uests

:illingness to taste an% p&rchase

(+) /o&ch 5vs* no to&ch6 Invitation 0ro2 ven%or to taste con%i2ents at2arket 5France6 5>&ég&en an% acob, !''?6

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Table *5Contin&e%6

Co2pliance 1ith ane2plo3ee s&ggestion

(+) ;rie0 contact on 0orear2 5 s6

A%%itional cons&2ption (+) ;rie0 tactile contact

Intention to tr3 or p&rchase ne1 pro%&ct

(+) Forear2 brie0l3 to&che% At ti2e o0 reG&est+ o00er o0 %isco&ntvo&cher 58ornik, I 8l - /he 2ore a 2e2ber o0 sta00 is ph3sicall3close to his her c&sto2ers, the greater 5a6 the%&ration o0 the cons&2ption e4perience an% 5b6 thea2o&nt spent in respect o0 each instance o0 servicecontact %&ring the 2ea *

Encounters between fellow customers. ;e3on%interactions 1ith service sta00 5 iglier, !' '9 :alter,!'' 6, a cons&2ption e4perience in a resta&rant

necessaril3 entails the possibilit3 o0 co22ensalit35Corbea&, !''"6, or sharing a %ining e4perience 1ithothers 5Corbea& an% Po&lain, !''!9 Fischler an%Masson, !'' 6, incl&%ing those seate% together 5chosen 0ello1 c&sto2ers6 an% other c&sto2ers previo&sl3 not kno1n 5i2pose% 0ello1 c&sto2ers6*

Service enco&nters &s&all3 take place in the presence o0 2an3 other c&sto2ers, re0lecting thecentral i2portance o0 at2osphere as a 0actor 5Jicholls, !' '9 Keitha2l an% ;itner, !''.6* In thisrespect, an% si2ilar to other e4periences at concertsor in leis&re parks 0or e4a2ple, in%ivi%&al s seek o&t

$b&s3$ places - in%icative that the G&alit3 o0 their o00er is perceive% to be s&perior - 3et their %ecision to enter a resta&rant is para%o4icall3 base% on a reHection o0 cra2pe% con%itions 5An%ersson an% Mossberg, !''=9/se et a *, !''!6* /he presence o0 other in%ivi%&al sin a place o0 cons&2ption 2a3 there0ore beconsi%ere% to be an e4pectation a2ong cons&2ers5:alter, !'' 6*

Jonetheless, it is tho&ght that this social presencealso 2o%i0ies service eval&ation 5;itner,

protect his her space 5Dion, !'''9 Dion an% ;onnin,!''=9 8all,

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#able $. (vervie1 o0 the literat&re on the e00ects o0 %istance bet1een c&sto2ers*

;ehavio&ralvariables

4planator3 variables(+) positive link 5-6negative link

Conte4t

,hysical distan ce

/i2e spent Resta&rant, US conte4t, base% on inter-table %istances 5Robson et al*, !' I 6

Spen%ing

Cons&2ptionchoices

5-6 Avoi%ance an% earl3 %epart&re i0 intr&siono0 cons&2ption space b3 other c&sto2ers) "c2 5vs* .' vs* ?' c265-6 :hen inter-table %istance "' c2 5vs* "' d

'' vs* M '' c26

5-6 I0 sho&l%er acci%entall3 to&che% b3another c&sto2er

5-6 :hen inter-tables %istanceL "' c2 5vs* "' d '' vs* M '' c26

5-6 I0 sho&l%er acci%entall3 to&che% b3another c&sto2er

8o2ogeneit3 5resp* heterogeneit36 o0 choices i0 inter-table %istance is high 5N=" c26 5resp* lo1 OO=" c26Personal e00ects lai% o&t in s&ch a 1a3 as to preserve cons&2ption space an% prevent otherssitting too close

Choice o0 %i00erent pro%&cts %&e to e4cessive ph3sical pro4i2it3 o0 cons&2ers

Resta&rant, US conte4t, base% on inter-table%istances 5Robson an% i2es, !''

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Table !*5Contin&e%6

;ehavio&ralvariables

4planator3 variables(+) positive line 5-6negative link

Conte4t

ocation of otherc&sto2ers

/i2e spent (+) D&e to $b&bble$ e00ect i0 tables are

isolate%

Resta&rant 5 i2es an% Robson, !''=6

Spen%ing (+) I0 tables g&arantee inti2ac3

(+) D&e to $b&bble$ e00ect i0 tables areisolate%

Choice o0table

Resta&rant, si2&late% 2eals, virt&al conte4t581ang an% oon, !''

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#able %. Descriptive sa2ple statistics*

J&2ber o0 observations ,=== tables, .,.?' c&sto2ers

J&2ber o0 observations in resta&rant chains in%epen%ent resta&rants

J&2ber o0 tables 1ith 1aiters+

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Inti2ate inter-table Personal inter-table Z P%istance % N ="c2 %istance % N =" c2

Average %&ration ".*+? 2in&tes ?'* ! 2in&tes -.*!=. . /Average spen%ing

'*.

'*.=

'*.

'*!?Close personal Far personalIntimate

-- Average duration ---- Average spending

Fig&re l* Average %&ration an% spen%ing base% on average %istance bet1een 1aiter an% c&sto2er table*

o0the 2eal 5%&ration, e4pense6* :e 1ill no1 e4plainho1 these variables 1ere 2eas&re%*Q

Measuring socio0spatia/ distanceSocio-spatial %istance 1as s&bHecte% to t1o t3pes

!/au"el and Rich# 11

#able '. I2pact o0 inter-table %istance on cons&2ption %&ration an% spen%ing*

#able (. Si2&ltaneo&s i2pact o0 inter-table %istance(Fe 0or 0ello1 c&sto2ers6 an% 1aiter-c&sto2er %istance 5: 0or 1aiter6 oncons&2ption %&ration an% spen%ing 5 r&skal-:allis tests6*

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/.1/

In,l2a,e (e) Iln$l2a,*5:6 lntl2ate 5e6$ Personal5:C

',. /ables 1ith ! c&sto2ers

'*!$

',!?

/.12

'*!'

InU2ot* 5CI$ InU2ole R:6 Inll2ot*le6$ Pe$sonal 5:

lntl2ate (e) I Per onal 5:6 Personal(e) Iln,l2ote 5:6 Personal(e) I Fersonal 5:6tscreet servke in Convivial )T*eMce Coldness '

ramped !onditions in open spa e respect 0or co22ensalit3

Inti2ate personal personal

"ers nal lntimate Pe5sonal

o0 2eas&re2ents %epen%ing on the interacting parties*First, the %istances bet1een c&sto2ers$ tables 1ere2eas&re% be0ore each service began &sing a2eas&ring tape* /he ph3sical %istance bet1een t1otables 1as inten%e% to enable social interaction bet1een c&sto2ers so this co&l% be consi%ere% as parto0the st&%3* :e then esti2ate% the %istance bet1eenthe 1aiter an% the c&sto2ers$ tables 0or each o0 thesi4 contacts 5Appen%i4 6* /he space observe% bet1een the 1aiter an% the table 1as 2eas&re% &singa 2ean %eviationO in centi2etres* (&r 2eas&re2ent bench2ark 1as base% on 8all$s categori7ation 5 &ég&en, !' !6*<

Measuring explained variables

In ter2s o0 cons&2ption %&ration, o&r observationinvolve% 2eas&ring the ti2e lapse in 2in&tes bet1een the 2o2ent 1hen the %iner5s6 1as 1ereseate% at the table an% 1hen the 2eal 1as pai% 0or,1hether this took place at the table or at the co&nter*

' As 0or the a2o&nt o0 2one3 spent, the %atacollecte% enable% &s to esti2ate in%ivi%&al spen%ing base% on the %ishes an% %rinks serve% to eachc&sto2er at each table in accor%ance 1ith the pricesliste% on the 2en& at the ti2e o0the observation* Inline 1ith certain previo&s st&%ies 5e*g* Donovan et

al*,

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Mean Inti2ate 5FC6 Personal 5FC6 Inti2ate 5FC6 Personal 5FC6X2 ,

to2ers per table 4 Inti2ate 4 Inti2ate 4 Personal 4 Personal5:6 5...6 5:6 5!!"6 5:6 5? !6 5:6 5!+=6

D&ration = *' ""*!< "!*++ .+*!+ =?*? .Spen%ing ?*+ +*.?

. or 2ore D&ration = *! "

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case o0 close pro4i2it3 1ith sta00, as initiall3 s&p- pose%* Jor 1ere the3 obtaine% in scenarios 1here the1aiter 1as positione% too 0ar a1a3*

More speci0icall3, 1e 0o&n% an overall pre0erence0or inter2e%iate %istances bet1een the table an% the1aiter 5/able =6 0or each o0 the contacts st&%ie%5Appen%i4 l6* 8o1ever, or%ers taken 0or %essert an%co00ee re0lect %i00erent an% even contrar3 res&lts inter2s o0 %&ration 5non-signi0icant regar%ing 2one3spent on %essert6, in%icating a pre0erence 0or 2oree4tre2e %istances 5inti2ate an% longest6*

83pothesis l is not there0ore vali%ate%* It sho&l% be note% that the res&lts obtaine% 0ollo1 the sa2e patte2 1here in%epen%ent variables 1ere controlle%one b3 one*

#egative reactions to imposed shortdistan ce $rom $e/lo" customers

Mann- :hitne3 tests %e2onstrate% a signi0icant link bet1een average 2eal %&ration an% spen%ing an%i2pose% %istances 0ro2 0ello1 c&sto2ers*TO

/able " sho1s that 1hen tables are ver3 close toone another, c&sto2ers re2ain seate% 0or shorter ti2es 58!a vali%ate%6* F&rther2ore, in ter2s o0 spen%ing, altho&gh critical probabilit3(p '*'

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e4perience 51aiter or i2pose% 0ello1 c&sto2ers6 ph3sicall3 intr&%es on the ph3sical space o0the con-s&2er %ining alone have a negative i2pact on 2eal%&ration* In scenarios in 1hich the %istance bet1eenall interacting parties is long, the ti2e spent at theresta&rant is also re%&ce%*

/he i2pact on spen%ing is not signi0icant 0or

tables 1ith H&st one c&sto2er* C&sto2ers 1ho %inealone spen% aro&n% " 2in&tes longer in balance%interactional scenarios, i*e* 1hen the %istance is nei-ther too inti2ate nor too long*

,reference for intimacy at endogenous group level in thecase of shared meals. :ith regar% to share% con-s&2ption e4periences 5tables 1ith t1o or 2ore c&s-to2ers6, 2eal %&ration an% spen%ing are 2a4i2i7e%1hen the other parties present are 0&rthest a1a3* Asi2&ltaneo&s short %istance 0ro2 0ello1 c&sto2ersan% 0rontline e2plo3ees correspon%s to shorter 2eals

an% less spen%ing 5Fig&re !, tables 1ith ! c&sto2ers,tables 1ith . or 2ore c&sto2ers6*Regar%less o0 gro&p si7e, the reaction 0ro2 con-

s&2ers to inti2ate %istances is ho2ogeno&s an%res&lts in less ti2e spent %ining* /his e00ect isincrease% as gro&p si7e %i2inishes(X2 '* 9 p 5'*''= ?6, as sho1n in /able +* 83pothesis =a isthere0ore vali%ate%*

/he si2&ltaneo&s %istance bet1een interacting parties has a %i00erent i2pact on 2eal %&ration%epen%ing 1hether c&sto2ers %ine alone or 1ithothers* 8o1ever, 1e observe% a non-signi0icant e00ecto0 socio-spatial %istance on spen%ing in cases 1herec&sto2ers %ine% alone, even tho&gh the patte2in%icate% %i00erences in respect o0 c&sto2ers ingro&ps* Speci0icall3, 1e 0o&n% that the 2ore gro&psi7e increases, the 2ore cons&2ers pre0er to be0&rther a1a3 0ro2 both sta00 an% other tables 5Fig&re!6* /hese %i00erences 1ere con0ir2e% in ter2s o0 average %&ration(X2 '!*

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#able ,. Sche2atic interpretation o0 0o&r interactional sit&ations base% on the %istance bet1een interacting parties %&ring tableservice*

Interactional sit&ations interprete%accor%ing to sit&ation observe% Xgre3seg2ents6

Distance bet1een tables an% c&sto2ers

Personal(, =S c26

Distance bet1een1aiter an% table

Intr&sion

Inti2ate - =S c26

Inti2ate - =S c26 Convivial service in open space5co20ortable6

Re%&ction in 2eal%&ration an% spendingregardless of number ofc&sto2ers attable

Increase in 2eal %&rationin the caseofindividual e4perience

Personal(, =S c26 Discreet service incra2pe% space 5$share%convivialit3$6

Col%ness or respect 0orco22ensalit3

Increase in 2eal %&ration inthe caseof individuale4perience

Re%&ction in 2eal %&rationin the caseof individual e4perienceIncrease in 2eal%&ration an% spen%ingin the caseofcollective e4perience

1o&l% appear that being ver3 close ph3sicall3 to one$s1aiter act&all3 has a negative e00ect on 2eal %&rationan% spen%ing* /his pre0erence 0or inter2e%iate%istances 2a3 be interprete% as a response on the parto0 cons&2ers that in%icates a certain a2o&nto0resistance to %istances perceive% as too short, s&g-gesting that the3 seek to protect their cons&2ptionspace 5Cla&7el, !''+6* 8o1ever, it sho&l% be note%that contrar3 e00ects 1ere observe% regar%ing or%erstaken 0or %essert an% co00ee* /hese 0in%ings 2a3 bee4plaine% b3 the 0act that these phases occ&r at the

en% o0 the service, 1hen %iners have been in contact1ith their 1aiter several ti2es* It is conceivable thatat that point the en%ogeno&s gro&p is 2ore likel3 toa%2it the 1aiter into their inti2ate space an% there-0ore e4ten% the %&ration o0their 2eal* 8o1ever, the%ata %o not allo1 &s to con0ir2 this possible e4pla-nation, as the average %istance 2aintaine% b3 1aiters%i% not var3 signi0icantl3 as the service enco&nter progresse% 5Appen%i4 6* (ther 0actors 2a3 be &se-0&ll3 e4plore% b3 0&t&re researchers* A st&%3 o0 %is-tances as perceive% b3 cons&2ers an% changes in this perception over the co&rse o0 the 2eal 1o&l% be

&se0&l as a co2ple2ent to these e4planations*F&rther2ore, resta&rants incl&%e a collection o0 tables locate% at var3ing %istances 0ro2 one another*In realit3, vario&s interactions, 1hether %irect or

in%irect, vis&al or verbal, take place over the co&rseo0 the cons&2ption e4perience* @ariations in thea2o&nt o0ti2e spent in the cons&2ption space an% inaverage spen%ing %epen% on the presence o0 other c&sto2ers an%, speci0icall3, the socio-spatial %is-tances observe% bet1een 0ello1 c&sto2ers* A highlevel o0 i2pose% ph3sical pro4i2it3 bet1een c&s-to2ers has a negative i2pact on 2eal %&ration an%average spen%ing* /he res&lts obtaine% enrich thee4isting literat&re on the in0l&ence o0 in%ivi%&als 1ho%o not kno1 one another 5Ca2élis et al*, !' .6 b&t

share a li2ite% cons&2ption space* In line 1ith the1ork o0 Cla&7el 5!''+6, 1ho points o&t that theintr&sion o0 an en%ogeno&s gro&p $s space b3 another person res&lts in %i00erent choices being 2a%e, 1eobserve% behavio&ral responses 1ith an i2pact on%&ration an% spen%ing* /hese 0in%ings also appear toco2ple2ent previo&s concl&sions on the negative0eelings - an% even stress - bro&ght on b3 thei2position o0 cro1%e% con%itions 5Dion, !'''6*Altho&gh there is a nee% 0or con0ir2ator3 anal3sis in percept&al ter2s, there 1o&l% appear to be a higher nat&ral t&rnover rate a2ong c&sto2ers in cra2pe% or

con0ine% spaces*:e have also %e2onstrate% the i2pact o0 si2&l-taneo&s %istances bet1een all interacting parties present* >enerall3 speaking, these res&lts s&ggest a

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pre0erence a2ong c&sto2ers 0or inter2e%iate %is-tances bet1een the parties, 1hereas 1e initiall3s&ppose% that greater pro4i2it3 1ith the 1aiter co2bine% 1ith longer %istances bet1een 0ello1c&sto2ers 1o&l% have a positive e00ect 5 i2es an%Robson, !''=9 i2es et al*, !''!6* (&r 0in%ings on%&ration an% spen%ing s&ggest a 0or2 o0 aversion

to1ar%s 5e4cessivel36 short %istances, as these vari-ables %i2inish in correlation 1ith %istance* /he presence o0 other in%ivi%&als there0ore see2s to ca&secons&2ers to a%apt their behavio&r to their environ2ental sti2&li in accor%ance 1ith the level o0 real or perceive% overcro1%ing, th&s con0ir2ing theanal3ses o0 Mehrabian an% R&ssell 5

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Co22ercial approach

#able . Interpreting the integration o0 socio-spatial %istance in %ecisions 2a%e b3 resta&rant o1ners*

Per service06 ccupancy rateapproach

Per c&sto2er table06Average priceapproach

(bHective to increase spen%ing Re%&ce ti2e spent seate%

- I2prove occ&panc3 rate perservice) increase n&2ber

o0 covers per service 5c&sto2ert&rnover rate6- Accent&ate cra2pe% con%itions

Challenge

I nteractional sit&ationsobserve% an% interprete%

Intr&sive interactional sit&ation bet1een 1aiter an% 0ello1c&sto2ers for all c&sto2ers

I2plications - Potential positive e00ects o0 hight&rnover rate on reven&e

- Potential negative e00ects onlo3alt3 an% resta&rant$s i2age to be consi%ere%

Increase ti2e spent seate%

Increase cons&2ption an%spen%ing per cover Re%&cet&rnover rate an% i2provei2ageFavo&r lo3alt3

:aiter$s behavio&r a%apte% to space an%table si7e)

Convivial sit&ation

in open space preferred by solitarydiners

Discreet servicee 5col%6 in cra2pe%con%itions preferred by solitarydiners

Col% interactional sit&ationsnotappreciated by solitary diners b&t preferred by groups (respea forcommensality

Potential positive e00ects onreven&e b&t probabl3 lesssigni0icant in short ter2 than inocc&panc3 rate approach Potential positive e00ects on i2age,likelihoo% o0 ret&rn visit an%lo3alt3 levelsPotential positive e00ects onlikelihoo% that bran% 1ill bereco22en%e%

0ro2 0ello1 c&sto2ers %eter2ine in%ivi%&al satis-0action levels 5Ca2élis et al*, !' .6* Altho&gh o&r research is not inten%e% to 2eas&re satis0action levels,it in%irectl3 contrib&tes to o&r &n%erstan%ing o0thisvariable b3 s&ggesting e4planator3 0actors inte2poral an% 0inancial ter2s that can be relate% toother so&rces o0 %issatis0action i%enti0ie% in theliterat&re* @er3 short %istances res&lt in a re%&ction in2eal %&ration an% spen%ing9 this can be interprete% as

a %esire to leave the place o0 cons&2ption 2oreG&ickl3 or as an in%ication o0 rel&ctance to spen%2ore an% there0ore as a 0or2 o0 %issatis0action*

/he contrib&tions 2a%e b3 this research to e4ist-ing st&%ies in hospitalit3 2anage2ent 5Chen et al*,!''

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stan%ar%s$ in p&blic places o&tsi%e the ho2e 5Corbea&an% Po&lain, !''!6* Fro2 an anthropological perspective, it is interesting to note certain si2ilaritiesto res&lts obtaine% in the past 58all,

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cons&2ers are 0ree to e4ten% the %&ration o0 their 2eal 2a3 i2prove bran% i2age an% even 0avo&r a2ore long-ter2 relationship*

Fro2 a practical point o0 vie1, a%vising an%training 0rontline e2plo3ees on the i%eal position1hen interacting 1ith c&sto2ers is necessar3 in ter2so0 ph3sicall3 organi7ing table service* I0 one %eci%es

to 2a4i2i7e the n&2ber o0tables 5opti2i7e then&2ber o0 covers - transactional approach6, a strateg3to re%&ce %istances at the ti2e o0 contact 1ithc&sto2ers, especiall3 at the beginning o0 the service,1o&l% go sorne 1a3 to1ar%s achieving this obHective*8o1ever, the potentiall3 negative e00ects on theresta&rant$ s i2age o0perceive% intr&sion b3 the 1aiter 2&st be taken into consi%eration*

I0there is a%eG&ate space bet1een tables, gener-ating social links b3 enco&raging 1aiters to 2ovecloser to c&sto2ers %ining alone, or on the contrar3 to be 2ore %iscreet in 2ore cra2pe% spaces 5inter-

2e%iate %istance6, 2a3 res&lt in solitar3 c&sto2erse4ten%ing the %&ration o0 their 2eal* 8o1ever, in thecase o0 tables 1ith 2ore than t1o people, open spacean% longer %istances 0ro2 the 1aiter are rec-o22en%e% 5e4ten%e% 2eal %&ration an% increase%spen%ing6* More speci0icall3, resta&rant o1ners 2a3choose to recon0ig&re the available space havingst&%ie% the str&ct&re an% &s&al la3o&t o0 their tables*For e4a2ple, i0 !' o0 c&sto2ers %ine alone, it 2a3 be1orth consi%ering &sing these tables to occ&p3 !'o0the total available space* In this case, the re2ainingspace 1o&l% be &se% 0or tables that are 2ore space%apart 5an% 1o&l% incl&%e tables 0or 2ore than t1oc&sto2ers6* /hese reco22en%ations can be a%apte%accor%ing to the perio% 52i%1eek 1eeken%,evening l&nchti2e, school holi%a3s6, 1hich reG&iresconstant 2onitoring o0 c&sto2er reactions an% a1illingness to reg&larl3 2o%i03the la3o&t o0the se2i- per2anent space 5e*g* 0&rnishings an% %ecor6*

It is also i2portant that bl&eprintsO sho&l% incl&%e2ore %etail abo&t the %istance 0rontline e2plo3eessho&l% 2aintain 0ro2 c&sto2ers in the %i00erent sce-narios presente% abo3e* /his is o0 central i2portance0or resta&rant chains, 1hich tr3 to stan%ar%i7e theservice pro%&ction process an% table service*

;&sinesses like in%epen%ent brasseries, on the other han%, sho&l% base their %ecision on the nee% 0or coherence not 1ith a parent bran% b&t 1ith a

long-stan%ing service tra%ition, partic&larl3 in theFrench conte4t* 8o1ever, 1hile the3 2a3 have %i0-0erent 2anage2ent approaches, 1hat these establish-2ents have in co22on is that the3 1ant to con0or2to a $stan%ar%$) either to nor2s an% tra%itions or totheir bran% i%entit3* It is also 1orth noting that o&r res&lts sho1 that %istance has the sa2e e00ects

regar%less o0the 2anage2ent approach* (&r reco2-2en%ation to integrate this variable into the service pro%&ction process %oes not there0ore %epen% on2anage2ent 2etho%s b&t rather on the 2anager$sco22ercial approach 5/able

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!' Recherche et Applications en Marketing (English Edition

lo3alt3* /he a2o&nt o0ti2e spent in retail o&tlets - or in this case in place s o0 cons&2ption - an% spen%ingare not in the2selves s&00icient to in%icate levels o0 c&sto2er satis0action or, there0ore, their intention toret&rn or reco22en% the bran%*

/here are 0&rther li2itations o0 a 2etho%ologicalnat&re in relation to the variables, 2etho%s an% con-

te4t o0 o&r 2eas&re2ents*First, the obHective %&ration o0 a 2eal is anaggregate variable 2a%e &p o01aiting ti2e, service%&ration an% cons&2ption %&ration 5 i2es et al*,!''!9 Robson an% i2es, !''

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pro%&cts 50ine %ining, bistros or 0ast-0oo%6 or geo-graphic location* /his 1o&l% reG&ire the st&%3 o0 other gro&p cons&2ption conte4ts in places o0 ser-vice* /he e4ternal vali%it3 o0 o&r st&%3 co&l% bei2prove% b3 repro%&cing the anal3sis in other co22ercial conte4ts 5hotels, ca0es bars, hair salons,e%&cational or training establish2ents, banks or

to&rist o00ices6, in 1hich the si2&ltaneo&s ph3sical presence o0 0ello1 c&sto2ers an% sta00 2e2bers isnecessar3*

Ackno!ledgements

:e 1o&l% like to thank the three anon32o&s revie1ers0or their highl3 constr&ctive co22ents an% s&ggestions*:e also e4ten% o&r thanks to all the 2anagers o0partici- pating brasseries, 1ho gave &s access to their place o0 b&siness an% catere% 0or o&r nee%s in ter2s o0 the proto -col p&t in place*

"otes

1. ean->abriel %& ai0lin, >D Conseil, $Co22ent bien a2énager sa salleQ$ Febr&ar3 !' ., http) 111*lhotellerie-resta&ration*0r 5accesse% Febr&ar3 !' .6*

2. :hen too 2an3 other in%ivi%&al s occ&p3 a space*3. E RFI+oo-!' (*4. It sho&l% be note% that the res&lts obtaine% %i% not

var3 accor%ing to the str&ct&re o0 the participatingresta&rants 5chain or in%epen%ent6, either in ter2s o0 %&ration or spen%ing* /he e00ects o0 %istance 1ere2eas&re% in%epen%entl3 0or each str&ct&re* /he %i0-0erences are not signi0icant(p . '* 0or %&ration an%

p . '*!< 0or spen%ing6* Jonetheless, beca&se the probabilit3 0ig&re 0or %&ration(p . '* 6 1as not 0ar

0ro2 the " signi0icance threshol%, 1e veri0ie% thee00ects o0the %epen%ent variable on spen%ing an% theti2e spent seate%* /hese e00ects prove% si2ilar bothin the case o0 chains an% in%epen%ent brasseries*

5. :hereas the other phases, s&ch as serving a %ish,li2ite% the available space an% necessaril3 involve%to&ching the table 52ini2&2 %istance. ( c26*

6. It sho&l% be note% that in sorne cases the 1aiter si2&ltaneo&sl3 took or%ers 0or t1o things 5%essertan% co00ee, 0or e4a2ple6* In these sit&ations, o&r 2etho%ological approach 1as to consi%er this as asingle contact an% there0ore associate it 1ith the2ore i2portant o0 the t1o phases 5%essert in thise4a2ple6 in the observer$s opinion* 8o1ever, s&chsit&ations %i% not occ&r 0reG&entl3, e4cept in thecase o0 or%ers 0or starters an% 2ain co&rses, 1hichare &s&all3 taken %&ring a single contact an% 1erethere0ore gro&pe% together*

7. A %o&ble co%ing proce%&re enable% &s to check the consistenc3 o0 o&r 2eas&re2ents an% thereliabilit3 o0 o&r res&lts* (nl3 a 0e1 cases 1eree4cl&%e% 0ro2 o&r anal3sis*

8. ach %eviation represents the %i00erence bet1een the 2a4i2&2 an% 2ini2&2 %istancesrecor%e% bet1een the 1aiter an% the table atthe ti2e o0 each observe% contacto Meana2plit&%e 1as 2eas&re%5e))9 " c26 an% %i% notvar3 signi0icantl3 bet1een the %i00erentcontacts observe% 5Appen%i4 6*

9. Certain t3pes o0 5longer6 interpersonal%istances are 2entione% in the literat&re associal 5 !' c2 to .+' c26 or p&blic %istances52ore than .+' c26, b&t 1ere not st&%ie% herein the conte4t o0 resta&rants, as these areli2ite% spaces in 1hich it is ver3 rare toobserve these %istances at the ti2e o01aiter-c&sto2er interaction*

10. /i2es spent 1aiting to be seate% 1ere2eas&re% in%epen%entl3 an% are not st&%ie%here*

11. In respect o0 non-nor2all3 %istrib&te% %ata5Shapiro:ilk6, this is the coe00icient 0or Spear2an$s nonpara2etric correlation 5Rho6*/he res&lts presente% herea0ter are also base%on non-para2etric tests*

12. /hese anal3ses 1ere con%&cte% b3 controlling0or %&ration an% spen%ing separatel3* (ncespen%ing has been controlle% 0or, the %irectiono0 the res&lts re2ains the sa2e, even tho&ghthe signi0icance tests %i% not pro%&ce e4actl3the sa2e res&lts* Si2ilarl3, 1hen the %&rationvariable 1as incl&%e%, the %irection 1as thesa2e, altho&gh sorne res&lts 1ere less

signi0icant 5notabl3 in the case o0 short 2eal%&rations6*13. Set 2en&s, 2ain co&rses or %ail3 specials*14. It sho&l% be note% that it 1as necessar3 to 0or2

a G&alitative gro&p as the s&bsa2ple in the $0ar personal$ %istance categor3 5inter-table%istances6 1as ins&00icient, th&s leaving t1o%istance categories) inti2ate an% personal*

15. /1o in%icators 1ere consi%ere%si2&ltaneo&sl3) %istance bet1een the 1aiter an% the c&sto2ers$ table 5:6 an% the %istance bet1een tables 5FC6* In this respect, it sho&l% be note% that t1o 2o%alities 1ere retaine% 0or each variable 5inti2ate %istance an% personal%istances6, allo1ing &s to obtain s&00icientl3large s&bsa2ples to carr3 o&t o&r tests*

16. r&skal-:allis tests highlighting a signi0icante00ect o0 the si2&ltaneo&s inti2ate5FC6 inti2ate 5:6 %istances accor%ing to gro&psi7e 5 c&sto2er ! c&sto2ers . or 2orec&sto2ers6 on ti2e spent seate% an% spen%ing*

17. r&skal- :allis tests highlighting a signi0icante00ect o0the si2&ltaneo&s 0ar %istance5personal personal6

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22 Recherche et Applications en Marketing (English Edition

accor%ing to gro&p si7e 5 c&sto2er ! c&sto2ers . or 2ore c&sto2ers6 on ti2e spent seate% an% spen%ing*

18. A b &eprint in this conte4t is akin% o02ap o0the service pro%&ction process that incl&%es the ke3 service 2o2ents,1hich are %etai e% an% ti2e% 5Shostack, < =6* It is atoo &se% b3 2anagers 1hich pro%&ces a sche2a o0 thelinks bet1een the c&sto2er, sta00 an% the ph3sicaeG&ip2ent nee%e% 0or the service*

19. A%apte% 0ro2 iglier an% Langear% 5 < +6*

References

An%ersson /D an% Mossberg L 5!''=6 /he %ining e4perience)Do resta&rants satis03 c&sto2er nee%sQ 7ood -ervice8echnology =5=6) + - ++*

Argon, Dah D: an% Manchan%a R@ 5!''"6 /he in0l&enceo0 a 2ere social presence in a retai conte4t* 9ournal of!onsumer Research .!5!6) !'+-! !*

;aron RA an% ;ell P A 5

sociales le cas de la consommation e4p#rientielle aurestaurant. Doctoral thesis, Université Paris Panthéon-Sorbonne, France*

Corbea& P 5!''"6 Sociabilités &rbaines conte2poraines etc&isines %e 0oire* De la convivialitéa la co22ensalitéQ!uisines en partage. ;iaspora +) =+- " 5!''=6 Une ét&%e co2parative %ess3sté2es pro4é2iG&es 0rancais et t&nisiens* Recherche et

Applications en Marketing

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!/au"el and Rich# !.

0ictionQ 9ournal of ,ersonality and -ocial ,sychology+rove S an% Fisk RP 5 nternational

9ournal of :ospitality Management !=5!6) !&ég&en J, acob C an% ;o&lbr3 > 5!''+6 /he e00ect o0 to&ch on co2pliance 1ith a resta&rant$ s e2plo3ee s&g-gestiono :ospitality Management !?5=6) ' nternational 9ournal of -ervice

>ndustry Management "5=6) .?"-. =*>&sta0sson I;, Zstro2 [, ohansson an% Mossberg L

5!''?6 /he 0ive aspects 2eal 2o%el) A tool 0or %eveloping 2eal services in resta&rants* 9ournal of

7oodservice +5!6) =-

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OContacts 1ith sta00 :aiter$s 2issions Li2ite% %istance eontact &se%in analysis

aro&n% the table

el >nitial contaa= waiter introduced no 3es

C! Men&s han%e% o&t 3ese3 -pecific options presented5set no 3es

menuor specia/se4 -tarter/main or%erstaken no 3ese5 ;rinks or%erstaken no 3esC? Aperiti0 serve% 3esC+ Aperiti0 cleare% a1a3 3esC Starter serve% 3esC< Starter cleare% a1a3 3esCI( Main co&rse serve% 3esC!! Main co&rse cleare% a1a3 3esel1 Dessertorder taken no 3esel2 eoffee order taken no 3esCI= Dessert serve% 3esCIS Dessert cleare% a1a3 3esCI? Drinks serve% 3esCI+ Drinks cleare% a1a3 3es

CI Co00ee serve% 3esCI< Co00ee cleare% a1a3 3esC!' *ill receive% 3esC! Pa32ent 2a%e at table 3esC!! (ther contacts %&ring 2eal

#4 Rechercheet Applications en Marketing (English Edition

Machleit A, rogl& SA an% Mantel SP 5!'''6 Perceive%retail cro1%ing an% shopping satis0action) :hat2o%i0ies this relationshipQ 9ournal of !onsumer

,sychology 5 < ?6 /o&ch,

co2pliance, an% interpersonal a00ect* 9ournal of onverbal