From Ibn Khaldun: Discourse of the Method and Concepts of Economic Sociology

1983Abdel Magid Al-Araki. ISBN 82-570-0743-9. Disseminate freely with this header intact.

[Pages:146-242]

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CHAPTER SIX: (4.5) THE MICRO-

ECONOMIC THEORY OF

DEVELOPMENT

Ibn Khaldun discusses his theory of micro-economics under the title "Onthe various aspects of making a living, such as surplus earnings 212 andthe crafts and insutry94, and the conditions that occur in this connection,including a number of problems that are connected with this subject", 209.Ibn Khaldun starts with the title "The real meaning and explanation ofsustenance 210 (al-rizq) and surplus earnings. Surplus earnings is thevalue realized from human labour." 212 (II, p. 272 A; p. 311 E)

Earlier these terms were used by Ibn Khaldun in a general economiccontext and other socio-economic aggregates. The term al-kasb, heretranslated by surplus earning, should only be understood as profitrealized from the exercise of a craft. Ibn Khaldun distinguishes betweensurplus earning (al-kasb) 211 and profit 213 which is realized fromcommercial activities. Later we will see the reasons behind thisdistinction. In the following the term "al-kasb" will be translated by"surplus earnings, in kind and money", usually realized by a craftsmanand/or owner of capital. Under the title mentioned above, Ibn Khaldunbegins with discussing the scarcity of resources in world. Thereafter heintroduces his theory of value. Let us see how this theory is developed.

Man, says Ibn Khaldun, is the only animal interested in earning themeans to meet his necessities "When man has control of himself and isbeyond the stage of his original [197] weakness, he strives to makeearnings 214, so that he may spend what God gives him to obtain hisneeds and necessities through barter." 215 (II, p. 273 A; p. 311 E) [Rosenthaltranslates both maksib and kasb by profit.]

In the citation above the term "al-maksib", earnings or gainful activitiesis different from the term "al-kasb", or surplus earning. [al-kasb stemsfrom the verb kasaba = to collect wealth, to gain, acquire or earn wealthand the like.] As previously mentioned, al-maksib, plural of al-kasb,signifies earnings, gains or acquisitions, and also deeds, whether good orevil. [Definitions are taken from Lane's Arabic-English Lexicon andothers.] From both the context and the other writings of Ibn Khaldun, al-maksib would be translated by earnings, in the sense gross or generalincome that represents the total flow of money or goods accruing to anindividual.

Ibn Khaldun says further that "... man may obtain this 216through noefforts of his own, as for instance, through rain that makes the fieldsthrive, and similar things. However, these things are only contributary."(II, p. 273 A; p. 311 E)

He further precises and says that since man's effort is the main thingwhich leads him to make earnings, then "His earnings (maksib)103 willconstitute his source of livelihood, 104 if they correspond to his necessitiesand needs. They will be accumulation of wealth217 and of utility articlesand produces 218 if they are greater than his needs." (II, p. 273 A; p. 311 E)Rosenthal translates the two last terms with "capital accumulation". The word "capital" inour translation denotes the stock of goods or money. Capital to be used for production is

called by Ibn Khaldun Ra's al-ml, or financial capital. (cf. p. 50 above).]

As could easily be seen here, the term "maksib", earnings, includes bothconsumption and savings. maksib are mainly realized through humaneffort. When intended for consumption they will correspond to source oflivelihood. 104 But, if, after consumption, there is a surplus, this willeventually lead to riysh (accumulation of luxury and wealth). Or it maylead to "al-mutamawwal" (accumulation of apital goods).

[198]The question which springs to mind is how can one really verify thatthis or that part of "al-makasib" - general earnings - or all of themcorrespond to one's necessities and needs 104 so that one can furthercalculate surplus earnings which are behind the accumulation of luxuryand wealth ("al-riysh") and of cash-products ("al-mutamawwal").

So as to answer this question, Ibn Khaldun continues: "...When the useof such accruing or acquired earnings 219 reverts to a particular humanbeing and he enjoys its fruits by spending it upon his interests and needs,it is called 'sustenance' (al-rizq). (II, p. 273 A; p. 312 E) [This expression"accrued and acquired earnings" 219 is synonymous with al-maksib, or general or grossearnings. The expression is very clear in the Arabic text. It covers both earnings acquiredwithout effort -husuul al-maksib, and with effort ightin' al-maksib. The term "al-rizq",by the end of the citation above, is something that cannot be obtained illegally. Hence not

all earnings are liable of being called rizq before one pays his taxes]. The sum ofearnings that corresponds to necessities and needs could only be called"al-rizq" after that tax-authorities has accepted them. The term "al-rizq"is that part of earnings (or the whole of it) that is actually consumed. Thisactual consumption make us believe that Ibn Khaldun calculates his taxesbased on the period prior to the tax period.

Ibn Khaldun says: "When a person does not use his (accruing or acquiredearnings) for any of his interests and needs 220 it is not called'sustenance'. The part of these accruing or acquired earnings that isappropriated by a person through his own effort and strength is called'surplus earning (al-kasb)." (II, p. 273 A; p. 312 E) Again comparing this towhat is said before, one finds that the part of earnings that exceedsnecessities and which was referred to by both the term "al-riysh" 125

and "al-mutamawwal" 218 is now referred to by the term "al-kasb"(surplus acquisitions).

[199]Al-kasb therefore covers both al-riysh (accumulation of luxury andwealth) and al-mutamawwal (cash-products) This means that beforecalculation of real consumption and precision of what should be called"rizq" and what should be called "kasb", the non-consumed accumulationis called "riysh" or/and "mutamawwal"

These "riysh" and "mutamawwal", which are greater than necessitiesand needs, could potentially either be used for other investments or forthe satisfaction of other needs of livelihood or they could be accumulatedfurther until the authorities intervenes with tax assessments.

As one could easily see, the key-differentiation is real consumption or"al-rizq" to use Ibn Khaldun's term. That which cannot be counted as"rizq" (sustenance) should be counted as "kasb" (surplus earning). As awitness to unjustice, corruption, decay and decrease of his civilization,Ibn Khaldun was interested in finding a system of taxation that could helprevive the socio-economic development in his society. He found it moreuseful to bring more precision to the well known religious term "al-rizq".

Ibn Khaldun says that man needs food and security. He continues,directly after having mentioned sustenance ("al-rizq") and brings aquotation from the prophet which reads: "The only thing you (really)possess of your property is what you ate and have thus destroyed; orwhat you wore and have thus worn out; or what you gave as charity andhave thus spent." (II, p. 273 A; p. 312 E)

Further he comes with the following illustration: "...the estate of adeceased person is called surplus earning (kasb) with reference to thedeceased person. It is not called 'sustenance' (rizq) because the deceasedperson did not use it. 221 But with reference to the heirs when they use itit is called 'sustenances'" (II, p. 273 A; p. 312 E)

Further again Ibn Khaldun says: "This is the real meaning of 'sustenance'among orthodox Muslims. The Mu'tazilh stipulated for the use of theterm "sustenance" that it must be possessed rightfully. Whatever is notpossessed [200] rightfully is not called 'sustenance'... Wrongly acquiredproperty or anything forbidden was not admitted... as be in somethingthat could be called 'sustenance'." (II, p. 273-274 A; p. 312 E)

Throughout these citations above, the word sustenance (al-rizq) denotesthat which is utilized, in the sense that which is consumed or is in theprocess of being consumed (clothes and the like), provided that it isenough for satisfying a person's basic necessities and needs. Borrowingthis term from religious vocabulary and referring to the Mu'tazilah, knownfor their liberal views, Ibn Khaldun underlines his agreement to theexplanation given.

The rizq (sustenance) when rightfully possessed according to the givenexplanation. could. in fact. stand for the just statistical measurement forwhat should compose a person's source of livelihood. 104 Ibn Khaldundoes not discuss the variation from one individual to another.

About surplus earnings (al-kasb) he says. "It should further be knownthat 'ak.kasb result from the effort to acquire earnings (al-maksib) andthe intention to obtain them." 222 But sustenance, (al-rizq) "...requireseffort and work, even if one tries to get it and ask for it in the differentproper ways for getting it." 223 (II, p. 274 A; p. 312 E)

At the end of section I, ch. V, he says: "The meaning of the word'sustenance' has become clear. It is the part (of earnings) that is utilized.Thus, the meaning of the word surplus earnings (al-kasb) and'sustenance' (al-rizq) has become clear. The meaning of both words hasbeen explained. (II, p. 275 A; p. 314 E)

[201]This confirms what we said before that the key differenciator is here"al-rizq" or real consumption and Ibn Khaldun had a keen interest inmaking these terms clearly distinguished from each other.

It was thus important to detail and analyse all the earnings accruing toman from his effort and his labour. But, human labour, which is the basisof earnings, could sometimes be obscure or concealed.

Labour is very obvious in the case of the craftsman who relys upon theexploitation of his know-how. However, it could be unclear and concealedin the case of the individual who uses more of his capital than of hisknow-how, as for instance, in agriculture. In this connection, Ibn Khaldunsays that human labour is necessary for every unit earned unit (al-maksuub) and every produced unit (al-mutamawwal). "Because when thesource of "al-maksuub" is work in itself as, for instance, in the exercise ofa craft, this is obvious. However, when the source of "al-mutamawwal" isanimals, plants, or minerals (this is not quite obvious). Human labour is,however, still necessary.... Without human labour, neither the "maksuub"could be obtained nor the "mutamawwal" could be advantageously used."(II, p. 274 A; p. 313 E) [Our translation of the arabic text 224 is here quite differentfrom that of Rosenthal]

Human labour is, therefore. necessary in every type of activity. includingthe case where man happens to obtain gains through no efforts of hisown. as, for instance through rain and the like. The means ofmeasurement or of payment which Ibn Khaldun takes into considerationis gold and silver. These are the measures of value for every unit ofsurplus in kind (qmah li-kull mutamawwal), i.e. for every form ofproperty which can be quickly converted into cash, whatsoever source itresults from. He says: "Gold and silver are what the inhabitants of theworld, by preference, consider treasure (a-arah) and value ofacquisition 225 to consist of. Even if, under [202] certain circumstances.other things are acquired it is only for the purpose of ultimately obtaininggold and silver. All other things are subject to market fluctuations 197

from which gold and silver are exempted. They are the basis of earnings(al-maksib), value of acquisition (al-qinyah) and treasure (a-arah)."(II, p. 274 A; p. 313 E)

Ibn Khaldun says, in his final conclusion for his theory of value, that hisabove discussion has established that what a person uses for his needs(ma yufduhu l-insn) and acquires of acquisitions (wa yatanh min al-mutamawwalt), if resulting from a craft then the know-how labour fromwhich he earns 226 represents the value of his labour. 227 This is themeaning of the value of acquisition (al-qinyah). There is nothing hereoriginally except the labour. Ibn Khaldun says that some crafts andinsutry are partly associated with others. Carpentry and weaving, forinstance are associated with wood and yarn. However in these two crafts,the labour that goes into them is more important and its value is greater."But if (what a person earns in money and acquires of capita in kind)results from something other than a craft, 228 then the value of the'consumption-utility produce' (al-mifdt) and the value of the acquisitionof this produce (al-qinyah), must also include the value of the labour bywhich it was obtained. Without labour this (qinyah) would not have beenacquired." (II, p. 274 A; p. 313 E) The labour Ibn Khaldun refers to in thiscitation is the productive skill or "capital" of a craftsman, his or her know-how. Even when this labour is combined with, for instance capital, it willstill remains the predominant factor of production. [203] The know-howlabour, whether obvious as it is in the case of crafts, or concealed as it isin agriculture, constitutes the bases on which the craftsman realiseearnings. It represents the craftsman's energy and skills.

Ibn Khaldun defines crafts and insutry 94 as those which require teachers.The teacher is the craftsman. and his teaching is the transfer of his skillor know-how to others. He says "It should be known that a craft is thehabit of something concerned with action and thought, in as much as it isconcerned with action, it is something corporeal and perceptible by thesenses. Things that are corporeal and perceptible by the senses aretransmitted through direct practice more comprehensively and moreperfectly (than otherwise). because direct practice is more useful withregard to them." (II, p. 306 A, p. 346 E)

Agriculture, for instance, although important and precedent to all othercrafts, has an inferior image as being the way of making a living for"weak" people. "Agriculture, the crafts and commerce... are natural waysof making a living... Agriculture is prior to all the others by its verynature, since it is something simple and innately natural. It needs nospeculation or (theoretical) knowledge... The crafts are secondary andposterior to agriculture, They are composite and scientific, Thinking andspeculation is applied to them. Therefore, as a rule, crafts exist onlyamong sedentary peoples," (II, p. 277-178 A; p. 316-317 E) [204] When theshare of labour is obvious, a portion of its value, whether large or small,is attributed to labour. But the share of labour may be concealed. "This isthe case, for instance with the prices of foodstuffs. The labour andexpenditure 229 that have gone into them show themselves in the price ofgrain, as we have stated before. But labour is concealed in regions wherefarming required little care and few implements. Thus only a few farmersare conscious of the costs of labour that have gone into their products."(II, p. 275 A; p. 314 E)

Human labour whether obvious or concealed, in crafts or in otherprofessions, is still the predominant factor. Returning to the title at thebeginning of this economic discussion, one reads "Surplus earning is thevalue realized from human labour" 212 Since consumables (al-mifdt)and surplus acquisitions (al-muktasabt) constitute different types ofearnings, or of maksib, then the conclusion of Ibn Khaldun is soundthroughout all its phases. He says, it has thus become clear thatconsummables and surplus acquisitions, (al-mifadt w-al-muktasabt) intheir entirety or for the most part, are in fact value realized from humanlabour." (II, p. 275 A; p. 314 E)

This is Ibn Khaldun's theory of value. It has one fundamental premise:LABOUR. (Cf.figure X)

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A.Magid Al-Araki 1983

[206]Our re-translation of some important terms during the previousdiscussion, makes the remainder of Ibn Khaldun's ideas easy tounderstand. By the end of his economic discussion, Ibn Khaldun says thatwhen the productive human labour in a city is all gone or decreasedbecause of a decrease in growth and development 230, this will lead tothat 'surplus earnings (al-kasb) to be abolished. "Cities with fewinhabitants 231 can be observed to offer little sustenance (rizq) and'surplus earning (kasb), or none whatever because of the decrease in(productive) human labour. 232 Likewise in cities with large (productive)human labour, 233 the inhabitants enjoy more favourable conditions andhave more luxuries, as we have stated before." (II, p. 275 A; p. 314 E)

In his theory of socio-economic development, Ibn Khaldun talks aboutproductive human labour and not general labour. The decrease in socio-economic growth (often translated by civilization by Rosenthal) that IbnKhaldun talks about, results from the decrease in productive humanlabour whether because of the emigration of productive forces from smallto large cities, for instance in times of calamities, political disintegrationor injust taxation. The decrease in socio-economic growth is caused by aqualitative rather than a quantitative labour, i.e. number of inhabitants,though the latter may also have an impact. Because it is "the additionallabour" that provides luxury and wealth, in contrast to "the originallabour" that provides the necessities of life.

[207] Luxury and wealth required productive human labour carried out byskillful people, because affluence says Ibn Khaldun, comes to those whowork and produce by their labour. From Rosenthal's translation gives theimpression that a decrease in socio-economic growth is because of thereduction in the total population and consequently a decrease in theavailable labour. This is not correct. Ibn Khaldun had a specific term, stillin use today, for population or inhabitants, i.e. al-sukkn. The decreaseIbn Khaldun talks about is a decrease of socio-economic development,not of population. This decrease is caused, first of all by the reduction inproductive human labour. Ibn Khaldun says "A large socio-economicgrowth [not civilization] yields large 'surplus earning' because of the largeamount of productive labour which is the cause of the 'surplus earning'"234 (II, p. 246 A; p. 282 E)

4.5.2 Evaluation of the different ways of making a living

Under the title "The various ways means and methods of making aliving", Ibn Khaldun gives his evaluation for the different ways of makinga living in relation to his theory of value. Livelihood 104, he says "...is thedesire for sustenance (al-rizq) and the effort to obtain it. 235

To secure livelihood 104happens through different ways: "Sustenance maybe earned and obtained 236through having the power to take it away fromothers.... This is called impositions and taxation."

Sustenance may also be earned and obtained from [208]"... wildanimals....Or either from domesticated animals.... or from plants. All thisis called agriculture." (II, p. 276 A; p. 315 E)

The third way of making a living, outside imposition of taxes andagriculture, is crafts. They are important for the socio-economic growthand development. crafts are mainly established in urban areas and moreprofit oriented enterprise. Ibn Khaldun continues: "Or surplus earnings(al-kasb) may be the result of human labour as applied to specificmaterials. Then, it is called a craft."94

The fourth type of ways of making a living, outside agriculture and

crafts, is when surplus earning (al-kasb) is extracted from the exploitationof "... non-specific materials. This, then includes all the other professionsand activities."

The fifth ways of making a living is when surplus earning (al-kasb) may"... come from merchandise and its use in barter; merchants can makesuch profit either by travelling around with merchandise or by hoarding itand observing the market fluctuations that affect it. This is callcommerce." (II, p. 277 A; p. 315 E)

The five categories of enterprises cover localizations in the center and bigcities or in the peripheries. They are: Impositions and taxation (politicalpower); agriculture; crafts, exploitation of non-specific materials andcommerce.

About agriculture Ibn Khaldun says: "Agriculture is prior to all the otherways of making a living by its very nature, since it is something simpleand innately natural." (II, p. 277 A; p. 316 E)

About the crafts he says: "The crafts are secondary and posterior toagriculture. They are composite and scientific. Thinking and speculationare applied to them. Therefore as a rule crafts exist only among people ofthe urban community." (II, p. 277 A; p. 316-317 E)

About commerce he says: "Commerce is a natural way of making surplusearnings. However most of its practices [209] and methods are tricky anddesigned to obtain the (profit) margin between purchase prices and saleprices. This surplus makes it possible to earn a profit. Therefore, the lawpermits cunning in commerce, since commerce contains an element ofgambling. It does not, however, mean taking away the property of otherswithout giving anything in return. Therefore. it is legal." (II, p. 278 A; p. 317E)

These are the ways of making a living which Ibn Khaldun characterizes asnatural. As we have seen, they are also graded. First agriculture and thenthe crafts and commerce.

The title of section 3, chapter V of the Muqaddimah, reads as follows:"Being a servant is not a natural way of making a living." By servants, herefers specially to those employed to serve people who live in luxury."The reason for the existence of servants on a lower level is the fact thatmost of those who live in luxury are too proud to take care of their ownpersonal needs or are unable to do so, because they were brought upaccustomed to indulgence and luxury." (II, p. 278 A; p. 317 E)

In addition to servants, Ibn Khaldun characterizes others as having nonatural way of making a living. Those are people who try to make moneyfrom buried and other treasures, believing that all the property of thenations of the past was stored underground and sealed with magictalismans. Ibn Khaldun says that "In addition to a weak mind, a motivethat leads people to hunt for treasure is their inability to make a living in

one of the natural ways for surplus earnings, such ascommerce.agriculture or the crafts." (II, p. 280-281 A; p. 319 E)

Above is a picture both of business entrepreneurs, with their natural waysof making a living, as well as a segment of the labour market withoccupations that are described as unnatural to human beings.

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4. 5. 3 Exploitation

Two types of unnatural ways of making a living - servants and treasure-seekers - are, according to Ibn Khaldun, against human nature whenconsidered from the point of view of the individual who accepts beingengaged in such occupations. However, there are other occupations thatthe individu accepts whether because of his unawareness or because ofbeing obliged to accept them. These occupations being unnatural to theone who is doing them are also described as unnatural when seen fromthe employer's point of view. This is the case, for instance of those whohave the power to appropriate the labour of others. This is exploitation.

Under the title "Ranks (al-h) are useful in securing property", we findIbn Khaldun saying that the person of rank who is highly esteemed is inall the different ways of making a living more fortunate and wealthierthan a person who has no rank. The reason for this is that the person ofrank is served by the labour of others. They try to approach him withtheir labour, since they want to be close to him and are in need of theprotection his rank offers. People help him with their labour in all hisneeds whether these are necessities, 124 conveniences or luxuries 125.The value realized from all such labour becomes part of his surplusearnings. For tasks that usually require giving compensation to theperson who perform them, the person of rank always employs peoplewithout giving anything in return. He realizes a very high value from theirlabour. It is the difference between the value he realizes from the freelabour products and the price he must pay for things he needs. He thusmakes a very great [211]earning.

A person of rank receives much free labour which makes him rich in avery short time. With the passing of days his fortune and wealth increase.It is in this sense that the possession of political power (at- 'imrah) isone of the ways of making a living. (II, p. 287-288 A; p. 326-327 E)

Ibn Khaldun says further that the person who has no rank whatever,even though he may have property, acquires a fortune only in proportionto the property he owns and in accordance with the efforts he himselfmakes. Most merchants are in this position, says Ibn Khaldun. Thereforemerchants who have a rank are far better off than those who have not."People do farm work and business for these men who are at home anddo not leave their domiciles. But still their property grows and theirprofits increase. Without effort they accumulate wealth to the surprise ofthose who do not understand what the secret of their affluence is, what

the reasons for their wealth and fortune are." (II, p. 288 A; p. 327 E) Thistype of exploitation, says Ibn Khaldun, is encountered both in cities andtowns as well as in rural districts.

Ibn Khaldun means that it is unnatural that a man gives away his labourfor nothing because it is his source of profit and livelihood. Equally it isunnatural that this man's labour is unjustly appropriated by those whohave power and rank.

4.5.4 Rank and class structure

Ibn Khaldun says that persons who approach the holders of rank do sobecause they sometimes are in need of protection. They do that in orderto avoid harm and to obtain advantages. The labour and propertythrough which they attempt to approach him are, in a way, given [212]in exchange for the many good and bad things they may obtain or avoidwith the aid of his rank.

Ibn Khaldun goes on to says that "Rank is widely distributed amongpeople, and there are various levels of rank among them. At the top. theyextend to the rulers above whom there is nobody, At the bottom. theyextend to those who have nothing to gain or to lose among their fellowmen, In between. there are numerous classes." (II, p. 289 A; p. 328 E)

Ibn Khaldun is here talking about a particular class structure, where theindividual because of his unawareness could be exploited by the person ofrank and for the benefit of the latter, On the other hand, the individualcould. by approaching a person of rank with his labour or hismoney,obtain something in return. There are therefore two types of rank.One used "justly" and the other is pure exploitation. Ibn Khaldun saysthat "...rank means the power enabling human beings to be active amongthe fellow men under their control with permission and prohibition, and tohave forceful superiority over them, in order to make them avoid thingsharmful to them and seize their advantages. They may act in justice andapply the laws of religion and politics. and also follow their own purposesin everything else, However, the first thing (the just use of rank) wasintended by divine providence as something essential whereas the secondthing (self-seeking use of rank) enters into it as something accidental..."(II, p. 290 A; p. 329-230 E) Thus , rank affects people in whatever way theymake their living, says Ibn Khaldun, "Consequently, a person who seeksand desires rank must be obsequious and use flattery as powerful menand rulers require, Otherwise it will be impossible for him to obtain any(rank)" (II, p. 291 A; p. 330-231 E)

There are people who. because of their proudness, have no use for rank,says Ibn Khaldun. This is the case of "... a scholar who is deeply versedin his science, or a scribe who writes well, or a poet who makes goodpoetry. [213] Anyone who knows his craft assumes that people needwhat he has. Therefore he develops a feeling of superiority to them.People of noble descent whose forebears include a ruler or a famous

scholar, or a person perfect in some position also share this illusion.... Infact they cling to something that is a matter of the past, since perfectionis not passed on by inheritance." (II, p. 292 A; p. 331 E)

It has thus become clear that rank which Ibn Khaldun means could beused both for an against justice is a qualification mostly obtained fromthose who actually hold authority in society. It could be bestowed uponpeople whether because of their capabilities or because of their use ofobsequiousness and flattery towards the ruler his entourage and hisfamily.

4. 5. 5. Determination of wages

As said before a person who has no rank even though he may havemoney acquires a fortune only in proportion to the labour he is able toproduce, or the property he owns and in accordance to the efforts hehimself makes. This means that the craft a man knows, or thequalifications he has constitutes his value that is the value realized fromone's own labour. This is the base for determination of wages in societyas a whole and which Ibn Khaldun considers as something natural.Concerning government institutions, wages are, according to Ibn Khaldun,assessed in accordance to laws and regulations. "The ministry oftaxation...guards the rights of the state-dynasty in the matters of incomeand expenditure. It takes a census of the names of all soldiers fixes theirsalaries and pays out their allowances at the proper time. [214] In thisconnection recourse is had to rules set uP by the chiefs of operations andthe stewards of the state dynasty." (II, p. 16 A; p. 19 E)

But wages in the private sector are assessed in accordance with thedemand for the labour the individual offers. This means that the craft aman knows or his qualifications are subjected to the mechanisms of themarket. Since the profit human beings make is the value realized fromtheir labour, then "The value realized from one's labour corresponds tothe value of one's labour and the value of his labour as compared to thevalue of other labour and the need of the people for it. The growth, ordecrease of one's surplus earnings, in turn, depends on that" (II, p. 289 A;p. 328 E) The labour referred to here is qualified labour and not that of"apprentices" who are employed by the craftsman who will later issuetheir qualifications.

Ibn Khaldun says further that "Persons who are in charge of officesdealing with religious matters, such as judge, mufti, teacher. prayerleader. preacher, muezzin, and the like, are not as a rule very wealthy."(II, p. 295 A; p. 334 E) He repeats that "The reason for this is that surplusearning is the value realized from labour. This differs according to the(varying degrees of) need for (a particular kind of labour)... Commonpeople have no compelling need for the things that religious (officials)have to offer. They are needed only by those special people who take aparticular interest in their religion. (Even) if the offices of mufti and judgeare needed in case of disputes, it is not a compelling and general need.

Mostly, they can be dispensed with. Only the ruler is concerned with(religious officials) and (religious) institutions, as part of his duty to lookafter the (public) interests," (II, p. 295 A; p. 334 E)

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4. 5. 6 The economic system: structure and functioning of itsenterprises

The economic system Ibn Khaldun, being predominantly based onpersonal enterprise, has one's own labour as the sine qua non of all. Thissystem cannot be completely appreciated unless the structure andfunctioning of its enterprises is explained. We have earlier in this chapterdiscussed the main sectors of activity as the sector of agriculture, ofcommerce and of the crafts.

AGRICULTURE, according to Ibn Khaldun, is a way of making a living forweak people and those of the rural areas in search of subsistence. (II, p.296 A; p. 335 E) This is because agriculture is a natural and simpleprocedure. Therefore, as a rule, urban people, or people who live inluxury, do not practise it, Those who practise it are characterized byhumility, says Ibn Khaldun. Later, when discussing agriculture as a craft,Ibn Khaldun attributes to it its proper value as one of the indispensablecrafts to human beings:' "Agriculture is the oldest of all crafts, inasmuchas it provides the food that is the main factor in sustaining human life,since man can exist without anything else but not without food." (II, p.317 A; p. 356 E) The fact that those who practise agriculture are humiliatedmay be because of imposts and other means of domination. The personwho has to pay imposts is humble and poor, because a superior forcetakes his possessions away (from him), says Ibn Khaldun.

About COMMERCE, he says: "Commerce means the attempt to make aprofit by increasing capital, through buying goods at a low price andselling them at a high price..." (II, p. 297 A; p. 336 E) He further [216] saysthat the attempt to such a profit 213 may be undertaken by storing goodsand holding them until the market has fluctuated from low prices to highprices. This will bring a large profit. Or, the merchant may transport hisgoods to another country where they are more in demand than in hisown, where he bought them" (II, p. 297 A; p. 356-337 E)

Ibn Khaldun then presents his advice to merchants. Under the title "Thetransport of goods by merchants", he says that the merchant who knowshis business will only travel with goods that are generally needed. Thiswill permit him to have a large demand and not to restrict his sales to afew. Therefore. he must travel with medium quality goods which suitmost people. But, still more advantageous and more profitable for themerchant's enterprise is to bring goods from a country that is far awayand where there is danger on the road. Because "When goods are fewand rare, their prices go up. On the other hand. when the country is nearand the road safe for travelling, they will be found in large quantities, andthe prices will go down." (II, p. 298 A; p. 338 E) These merchants will be

better off than those who travel back and forth between the cities andcounties of one particular region.

The hoarding of food grain to wait for high prices is something which isprohibited by religious law. "Thus, the person known to be a hoarder ispersecuted by the combined psychic powers of the people whose moneyhe takes away." (II, p. 300 A; p. 339 E) When such practices areencountered, the political authority may intervene with its measures so asto stop hoarding of food grain. and merchants who are discovered wouldnot be able to wait for a fluctuation of the market as they had hoped todo. Government measures may have an even harder effect on themerchants, if a low price policy is dictated for a long period.

[217] Under the title "Continued low prices are harmful to merchants whohave to trade at low prices", Ibn Khaldun discusses the cyclicconsequences which could befall the economy when, for instance, such adepression period is encountered. He says: "When the prices of any typeof goods, food, clothing material , or anything else that may bring incapital 218, remains low and the merchant cannot profit from anyfluctuation of the market affecting these things, his profit 213 stops is thesituation goes on for a long period." (II, p. 301 A; p. 340 E) Theconsequence is that "Business in this particular line slumps, no trading isdone, and the merchants lose their invested capitals" 237

Ibn Khaldun then gives an example to show the consequences of such asituation of depression, He says: "This may be exemplified in the instanceof grain. While it remains cheap, the condition of all farmers and grainproducers who have to do with any of the various stages of grainproduction is adversely affected, the profit they make, being small,insignificant, or non-existent. They cannot increase their capital 238, orthey find (any such increase) small. They have to spend their investedcapital.237 Their condition is adversely affected, and they are reduced topoverty and indigence." (II, p. 301 A; p. 340-341 E) He continues: "This then,in turn, affects the condition of millers, bakers, and all the otheroccupations that are connected with grain from the time it is sown to thetime it can be eaten (II, p. 301-302 A; p. 340-341 E) Likewise, the incomefrom taxation is adversely affected, says Ibn Khaldun.

Ibn Khaldun here does not give a prompt answer or possible remedies tothe situation. He says that "prices that are too low destroy the livelihoodof the merchant who trades in any particular type of low-price(merchandise). The same applies to prices that are too high." (II, p. 301-302 A; p. 340-341 E)

[218] His appreciation of the fact that prices for grain must be low isclear because "...low prices for foodstuffs are of general usefulness, andfood, as far as grain is concerned weighs more than commerce." (II, p. 302A; p. 342 E) The solution Ibn Khaldun had in mind may be the one which isin the manuscript E [manuscript E, p. 341, foot-note 62] and whichproposes that merchants selling food should receive some compensationfor the profit that would escape them because of low prices.

Ibn Khaldun then turns to the socio-psychological aspects of commerce.Under the title "The kind of people who should practise commerce, andthose who should not", he says "In the attempt to earn the increase ofcapital that constitutes profit 213, it is unavoidable that one's capital getsinto the hands of traders 239, in the process of buying and selling andwaiting for payment. Now, honest (traders) are few." (II, p. 303 A; p. 342 E)Consequently, cheating tampering with the merchandise, delay inpayment non respect of obligations... are unavoidable. "The judiciary is oflittle use in this connection, since the law requires clear evidence." (II, p.303 A; p. 342 E), says Ibn Khaldun. All this causes the merchant a greatdeal of trouble. But, "If he is not afraid of quarrels knows, (how to settle)an account and is always willing to enter into dispute and go to court hestands a better chance of being treated fairly by (traders)... Otherwise,he must have the protection of rank." (II, p. 303 A; p. 343 E) On the otherhand, the person who lack these qualities or lacks the suort of rankshould avoid commerce.

Ibn Khaldun's socio-psychological study of commerce enabled him toestablish personality-traits and personality types for merchants Under thetitle "The character traits of merchants are inferior to those of leadingpersonalities [219] and remote from Manliness." (II, p. 304 A; p. 343 E), hesays that being a merchant "... requires cunning, willingness to enter intodisputes, cleverness, constant quarrelling, and great persistance. Theseare things that belong to the profession of commerce." 240 In IbnKhaldun's opinion these are "...qualities detrimental and destructive ofvirtuousness and Manliness, because it is unavoidable that actionsinfluence the soul." (II, p. 304 A; p. 343-344 E) To support this opinion herefers to a theory which we call the theory of attitude formation. Thistheory says that if a person exercise an action which is the obverse of asocial norm which he also ought to exercise, this will then constitute adissonance between the two. The repetition of the action will eventuallycreate a force which will resolve this dissonance by detracting the personfrom the social norm. In his words Ibn Khaldun says: "If evil and deceitfulactions come first and good qualities later, the former become firmly anddeeply rooted and detract from the good qualities, since the blameworthyinfluence of the evil actions has left its imprint upon the soul, as is thecase with all habits that originate from action." 241 ," (II, p. 304 A; p. 344 E)[In manuscript A and B one reads: "if evil and deceitful actions comesfirst and are repeated..." This repetition is completely in line with IbnKhaldun's ideas about formation of habits]

But Ibn Khaldun means that these influences differ accordingly among thedifferent types of merchants. By this he refers to differences inpersonality which are also shaped by the reference group the merchantidentifies himself with, or the milieu which influences him. He says:"Those who are of a very low type 242 and associated closely with badtraders who cheat and defraud and perjure themselves, asserting anddenying statements concerning transactions and prices, are much morestrongly affected by these bad qualities." He continues saying that aperson identifying himself with such a group "Deceitfulness becomes his

main characteristic. 243Manliness is completely alien to him, beyond hispower to acquire.244" (II, p. 305 A; p. 344 E)

[220]A second category of merchant are those who have the protectionof rank and are thus spared from having anything to do personally withsuch business manipulations. They are most uncommon, says IbnKhaldun. This category is associated with the holders of rank and power.Their interest in gaining prominence among their contemporaries, makesthem unfit for such practices. They have agents and servants to take careof their business transactions, and in case of trouble "It is easy for themto have the magistrates confirm their rights..." (II, p. 304 A; p. 344-345 E),says Ibn Khaldun.

Ibn Khaldun then comes to the third sector of activities, i. e. THE crafts.Under the title "The crafts require teachers", he says "It should be knownthat a craft is the habit (malakah) of something concerned with actionand thought, In as much as it is concerned with action, it is somethingcorporeal and perceptible by the senses. Things that are corporeal andperceptible by the senses are transmitted through direct practice morecomprehensively and more perfectly (than otherwise), because directpractice is more useful with regard to them." (II, p. 306 A; p. 346 E)

He says further that " A habit (malakah) is a firmly rooted qualityacquired by doing a certain action and repeating it times after time, untilthe form of (that action) is firmly fixed. A habit corresponds to theoriginal (action after which it was formed). The transmission of thingsone has observed with one's own eyes is something more comprehensiveand complete than the transmission of information and things one haslearned about. A habit that is the result of (personal observation) is moreperfect and more firmly rooted than a habit that is the result ofinformation. The skill a student acquires in a craft, and the habit heattains, correspond to the quality of instruction [221] and the habit of theteacher." (II, p. 306 A; p. 346 E).

Ibn Khaldun divides crafts into the simple and the composite. The formerconcerns the necessities and the latter belong to the luxuries. The simpleones are taught first and instruction in them is inferior. The compositeones which depend on civilization and its degree of development aretaught in accordance with the development which is behind theirinvention and diversification. He says: "The mind does not ceasetransforming all kinds of (crafts) including the composite ones frompotentiality into actuality through the gradual discovery of one thing afterthe other until they are perfect." (II, p. 306 A; p. 346 E) He says furtherthan "The crafts are perfected only if there exists a large and perfecturban civilization." 123 (II, p. 307 A; p. 347 E). What is meant by large andperfect urban civilization is large and perfect socio-economic growth. It isgrowth which is meant here, not civilization as a social unit. Ibn Khaldunuses one Arabic substantive to refer to the societal unit under this stageof development. 201

As we mentioned before different phases of socio-economic growth and

development are necessary before one reaches the stage of a perfecturban civilization. The stage of opulence is reached when civilizationdevelops excessively and crafts and insutry become excessive. Such adevelopment, as we said before, carries with it the germs for thedisintegration of socio-economic growth and development, and hence thedisintegration of urban civilization. Therefore it must be controlled, andconstantly checked. Ibn Khaldun says that "The crafts are firmly rooted ina city only when urban culture is firmly rooted and of long duration." 245

because, he continues "All crafts are customs and colours of civilization.Customs become firmly rooted only through much repetition and longduration." (II, p. 309 A; p. 349 E) This tallies with Ibn Khaldun'srequirements concerning instruction in crafts. Once crafts are firmly [222]rooted in a civilization, their traces will be difficult to remove even whenthe civilization which created them recedes. "Therefore we find that citieswith a highly developed urban culture, the civilization of which hasreceded and decreased, retain traces of crafts that do not exist in othermore recently civilized cities." (II, p. 309 A; p. 349 E)

If repetition and long duration are important in order that crafts becomefirmly rooted, peoples demand for them is similarly important. Under thetitle "crafts can improve and increase only when many people demandthem" (II, p. 311 A; p. 351 E), Ibn Khaldun mentions the different factorswhich favour this situation: First the great demand for crafts. Second andmore important the interest of the ruling state-dynasty regarding thedemand for these crafts and their improvement.

Meanwhile crafts belonging to luxury conditions are the first to disappearwhen the conditions of a city weaken or when the ruling power isoverthrown. Ibn Khaldun says that "The crafts recede from cities that areclose to ruin." (II, p. 312 A; p. 351 E)

As we have noticed under the discussion of the different ways of makinga living, Ibn Khaldun attaches particular importance to crafts as a sectorof activity. This is because crafts are closely related to urban civilization123 and urban culture 201.

In accordance with his theories of the growth and development ofcivilizations, Ibn Khaldun has a similar phases of development concerningthe sector of crafts: First their division into necessary and luxurious andtheir different levels of instruction. Second their perfection with theperfection of urban civilization. Third their becoming firmly rooted whenurban culture becomes firmly rooted and of long duration. Fourth, theirincrease and improvement with the increase of the general demand andfinally their recession with the recession of the cities where they werepractices.

[223] After having traced this development, Ibn Khaldun - as thoughgiving a kind of warning - says: "The person who has gained the habit ofa particular craft is rarely able afterwards to master another." (II, p. 315 A;p. 354 E) He says that "The reason for this is that habits are qualities ofthe soul. They do not come all at once." Further we read that "This is

clear and attested by the facts of existence. One rarely finds a craftsmanwho, knowing his craft well, afterwards acquires a good knowledge ofanother craft and masters both equally well. This extends even toscholars whose habit has to do with thinking." (II, p. 315 A; p. 355 E)

Finally, and under the title "A brief enumeration of the basic crafts", IbnKhaldun says that there are numerous crafts, practised by the humanspecies, "They are so numerous as to defy complete enumeration.However, some of them are necessary in civilization or occupy a nobleposition because of their object. We shall single these two kinds out formention and leave all others." He then continues: "Necessary crafts areagriculture, architecture, tailoring. carpentry, and weaving. crafts noblebecause of their object are midwifery, the art of writing, book production,singing, and medicine." (II, p. 316 A; p. 355 E) After having argumented thisselection, he says: "The other crafts are, as a rule, secondary andsubordinate. (The attitude toward them, however,) differs according tothe different purposes and requirements." (II, p. 316-317 A; p. 355-356 E)

A detailed discussion of the necessary crafts, mentioned above, includingthe noble ones, follows from section 23 throughout section 32 of chapterV in the Muqaddimah. (II, p. 317-363 A; p. 365-407 E)

In section 32, under the title "The crafts, especially writing andcalculation, give intelligence to the person who practices them", IbnKhaldun [224] says that each kind of learning and speculation providesthe rational soul with additional intelligence. Now the crafts and theirhabit always lead to the acquisition of scientific norms which result fromthe habit. Therefore any experience provides intelligence. The habit of thecrafts provide intelligence. "Perfect urban culture provides intelligencebecause it is a conglomerate of crafts characterized by concern for the(domestic) economy. contact with one's fellow men, attainment ofeducation through mixing with (one's fellow men) and also administrationof religious matters and understanding the ways and conditions governingthese. All these (factors) are norms which properly arranged, constitutescientific disciplines. Thus an increase in intelligence results from them .(II, p. 362 A; p. 406 E)

Ibn Khaldun here rigorously connects theory and practice in time andspace and attributes an increase in intelligence to the discovery and thearrangement of interrelations between theory and practice. Let us forinstance envisage the craft of writing and that of calculation in order tosee their relevancy in this respect. Writing at the time of Ibn Khaldun wasa craft used for making a living. In addition the person who occupiedhimself in this craft was in the same time a kind of "editor" acquiringbeside his practical experiences, theoretical ones. Calculation could,similarly to the craft of writing gather between theory and practice whenseen through the eyes of a merchant for example. Ibn Khaldun says that"Calculation is connected with (writing). Calculation entails a kind ofworking with numbers. 'combining' and separating' them which requiresmuch deductive reasoning. Thus (the person occupied in this process)gets used to deductive reasoning and speculation. and this is what is

meant by intelligence." (II, p. 363 A; p. 407 E)

[225]

CHAPTER SEVEN: (4.6.) THEORIES OF

SCIENCE AND INSTRUCTION

Now, let us envisage the last of the four main important pillars of growthand development in civilization 1 i. e. science and instruction 105. Thethree others were "al-mulk" (authority or royal authority), "al-kasb"(surplus earning) and crafts and insutry 94. Ibn Khaldun says that scienceand instruction are natural to human civilization. This is what he discussesunder the title: "The various kinds of sciences.The methods of instruction.The conditions that occur in these connections, The chapter includes aprefatory discussion and appendices" (II, p. 363 A; p. 408 E)

We have already, in the course of our study, used a lot from this part ofthe Muqaddimah especially in discussing Ibn Khaldun's method ofanalysis. We will now try to concentrate upon the remainder.

4.6.1 Ibn Khaldun's theories of thinking and perception

The first three sections in this chapter include Ibn Khaldun's theories ofthinking and perception, Under the title "Man's ability to think" (II, p. 364A; p. 411 E), he discusses perception and how it occurs. Three degrees ofthinking are explained here: The discerning intellect, the experimentalintellect and the speculative intellect (Cf. p. 96 and ff.)

Under the title "The world of the things that come into being as the resultof action, materializes through thinking" (II, p. 365 A; p. 413 E), he explainshow actions proceeding from human beings are ordered, contrary tothose proceeding from other living [226] beings, because of thinking.

Under the title "The experimental intellect and how it comes into being",he says that man by his very nature needs co-operation with his fellowmen. Such co-operation, he adds, "... requires, firstly, consultation,and,then, association and the things that result thereby." 246

Ibn Khaldun says further that "Dealings with other people, when there isoneness of purpose may lead to mutual affection, and when purposesdiffer, they may lead to strife and altercation." (II, p. 368 A; p. 417 E) This,he says, does not happen haphazardly among human beings becausetheir ability to think makes them act in an orderly and a well arrangedmanner. Because, the concepts bringing this about are not completelydivorced from sensual perception and do not require very deep study. "Allof them are obtained through experience and derived from it. They areparticular concepts connected with the sensibilia. 43 Their truth orfalsehood soon comes out in events. From events the student of theseconcepts can learn them. Each human being can learn as much of them

as he is able to. He can pick up (his knowledge) with the help ofexperience among the events that occur in his dealings with his fellowmen. Eventually he will have what is necessary and must be done, andmust not be done, fixed in his (mind). By knowing this well, then, theproper habit of dealing with his fellow men will be obtained by him." IbnKhaldun adds "Those who follow this (procedure) during their whole lifebecome acquainted with every single problem; things that depend onexperience require time" (II, p. 369 A; p. 418 E)

This is the experimental intellect which Ibn khaldun says is obtained afterthe discerning intellect. After these two comes the speculative intellect.[227] Under the title "The knowledge of human beings and the knowledgeof angels", Ibn Khaldun observes similarly the existence of three worlds.First, the world of sensual perception which we perceive, as do animals,by our senses. Seconds the world which is above the senses. Here webecome aware of our ability to think which teaches us about theexistence of human soul. "This knowledge is necessitated by the fact thatwe bear within us scientific perceptions which are above the perceptionsof the senses." About the third world, Ibn Khaldun says: "Then, wededuce (the existence of) a third world, above us, from the influencesthat we find it leaves in our hearts, such as volition and an inclinationtoward active motions." (II, p. 370 A; p. 419-420 E)

This vision of the world, with its three divisions, is both pragmatic andspiritual, Ibn Khaldun says that "Of the three worlds, the one we canperceive best is the world of human beings, since it is existential andattested by our corporeal and spiritual perceptions." (II, p. 371 A; p. 420-421E)

Ibn Khaldun says that human beings are ignorant by nature becausevacillation affects their knowledge which is all acquired. Human beings"...learn through acquisition (of knowledge) and technique, because theyobtain the objects they seek by applying their ability to think according totechnical rules." Only few among human beings are able to reach to akind of complete agreement between the knowledge and the thing knownthat they do not vacillate in their knowledge. Under the title "Theknowledge of the prophets", (II, p. 372 A; p. 422 E) Ibn Khaldun says thatabove the human world, there is a spiritual world. It is known to us by itsinfluence upon us, in that it gives us the power of perception and volition."The essences of that [228] spiritual world are pure perception andabsolute intellect. It is the world of the angels." (II, p. 373-374 A; p. 423 E)Because of this, Ibn Khaldun does not accept that the spiritual world beused for the argumentation of worldly matters. After the discussion ofthese theories of thinking and perception, Ibn Khaldun says under thetitle "Man is essentially ignorant and becomes learned through acquiringknowledge" that "Before man has discernment he has no knowledgewhatever and is to be counted one of the animals... Whatever he attainssubsequently is the result of sensual perception and the ability to think..."He continues that man "...reaches perfection of his form throughknowledge which he acquires through his own organs. Thus his humanessence reaches the perfection of existence." (II, p. 375 A; p. 424-425 E) This

illustrates Ibn Khaldun's theory of consciousness.

4. 6. 2 Instruction and educational institutions

Ibn Khaldun then comes to instruction. He says that "Scientific instructionis a craft". We have already mentioned that he considers education as acraft and those who practice it as craftsmen. Their labour, similar to thatof other craftsmen, is subjected to the demand for it. His argumentationfor equating scientific instruction with crafts is as follows: "This is becauseskill in a science, knowledge of its diverse aspects, and mastery of it arethe result of a habit (malakah) which enables its possessor tocomprehend all the basic principles of that particular science to becomeacquainted with its problems, and to evolve its details from its principles.As long as such a habit has not been obtained, skill in a particulardiscipline is not forthcoming." (II, p. 376 A; p. 426 E)

[229] What does Ibn Khaldun means by habit? He says that habit isdifferent from understanding and knowing by memory. Further, he saysthat it "...belongs solely and exclusively to the scholar or the person wellversed in scientific disciplines. This shows that (scientific) habit isdifferent from understanding." (II, p. 376 A; p. 426 E) Further we read thatall habits are corporal and all corporal things are sensibilia. 43 On theother hand, the fact that scientific instruction is a craft, says Ibn Khaldun,is also shown by the differences in technical terminologies.

How could this habit be acquired? Active participation and dialogue is thebest way of acquirement. "The easiest method of acquiring the scientifichabit is through acquiring the ability to express oneself clearly indiscussing and disputing scientific problems. This is what clarifies theirimport and makes them understandable. Some students spend most oftheir lives attending scholarly sessions. Still, one fins them silent. They donot talk and do not discuss matters. More than is necessary, they areconcerned with memorising. Thus, they do not obtain much of a habit inthe practice of science and scientific instruction." (II, p. 379 A; p. 429 E)huna-sist

The institutions of scientific instruction which are able, through theirtradition of teaching, to instruct such a craft and develop such habits arevery much in demand where there is an abundant socio-economic growthand continuous civilization. The influence of such places on areas of urbanculture, says Ibn Khaldun, attributes an additional intelligence to itsinhabitants. People who live in such urban communities "...observe aparticular code of manners in everything they undertake and do or do notdo, and they thus acquire certain [230] ways of making a living, findingdwellings, building houses, and handling their religious and worldlymatters, including their customary affairs, their dealings with others, andall the rest of their activities." All these are crafts that later generationstake over and each craft that has its proper place causes the acquirementof additional intelligence. "The intellect is thus conditioned for a quickreception of knowledge", (II, p. 381 A; p. 432 E) says Ibn Khaldun. The

influence of the milieu is clear here. And we read further that "Thesciences are numerous only where growth and development 1 is large andurban culture 201 highly developed." (II, p. 383 A; p. 434 E) The differentenvironmental impulses condition the intellect differently. Under the title"The various sciences that exist in contemporary civilization", Ibn Khaldundiscusses a curriculum where these sciences are divided into twobranches. The first comprises logical and philosophical sciences 247 andthe second comprises the traditional, conventional sciences. 248 IbnKhaldun says: "It should be known that the sciences with which peopleconcern themselves in cities and which they acquire and pass on throughinstruction, are of two kinds: one that is natural to man and to which heis guided by his own ability to think, and a traditional kind that he learnsfrom those who invented it." (II, p. 385 A; p. 436 E)

Further he says "The first kind comprises the philosophical sciences, Theyare the ones with which man can become acquainted through the verynature of his ability to think and to whose objects, problems, arguments,and methods of instruction he is guided by his human perception, so thathe is made aware of the distinction between what is correct and [231]what is wrong in them by his own speculation and research in as much ashe is a thinking human being." (II, p. 385 A; p. 436 E) Later Ibn Khaldunshows that these are the sciences of philosophy and wisdom which hedivides into four groups: Logic, Physics, Metaphysics and the study ofmeasurements (Geometry, Arithmetic, Music, and Astronomy). (III, p. 86-87 A; p. 111 E)

"The second kind comprises the traditional, conventional sciences. All ofthem depend upon information based on the authority of the givenreligious law." (II, p. 385 A; p. 436 E)

This division into philosophical and conventional sciences concords withthe secular nature of Ibn Khaldun's science of civilization. 73 Ibn Khaldunthen gives a detailed and lengthy exposition of these sciences which heenumerates from section 10 throughout section 17, chapter VI of theMuqaddimah. (388-II to 86-III A; p. 439-II to 110-III E) Thereafter, under thetitle "The various kinds of intellectual sciences" (III pp. 87-241 A; p. 110-280E), Ibn Khaldun gives a general curriculum for these sciences which heenumerates and discusses. In addition, he also gives his opinionconcerning some of them, like philosophy astrology and alchemy. It is,however, not our intention to embark on the study of these two differentcurriculums. [Section 44, ch. IV, throughout the 3rd. volume is mostlyreserved for the Sciences concerned with the Arabic language. (III, pp.278-433 A; pp. 319-480 E)

4. 6. 3 Process of perception, communication and literarycomposition

In the section "The purpose that must be borne in mind in literarycomposition and that alone are to be considered valid", Ibn Khaldundiscusses his process of perception, the type of communication and the

purposes of literary composition. [232] About the process of perception,he says: "...the storehouse of human science is the soul of man. In itGod has implanted perception, enabling it to think and, thus, to acquire(scientific knowledge). (The process) starts with perception 40 of realitiesand is then continued by affirmation or negation of the essentialattributes of the (realities), either directly or through an intermediary."(III, p. 241 A; p. 281 E) He continues: "Man's ability to think thus eventuallyproduces a problematic situation which he tries to solve affirmatively ornegatively. When a scientific picture has been established in the mindthrough these (efforts), it must, of necessity, be communicated tosomeone else, either through instruction or through discussion, in orderto polish the mind by trying to show its soundness." (III, p. 242 A; p. 281 E)

Ibn Khaldun then comes to types of communication and says that it cantake place through 'verbal expression', that is communication in speech."This is the first step in the communication of thoughts. As its mostimportant and noble part, it includes the sciences. However, it comprisesevery statement or wish (command) that in general enters the mind.After this first step in communication, there is a second. It is thecommunication of one's thoughts to persons who are out of sight orbodily far away, or to persons who live later and whom one has not met,since they are not contemporaries. This is written communication." (III, p.242 A; p. 281-282 E)

Written communication, says Ibn Khaldun, gives information about thenoblest part of thinking, namely, science and knowledge. "Everywhere inthe world, written works are numerous. They are handed down among allraces and in all ages. They differ as the result of differences in religiouslaws and organizations and in the information available about nations anddynasties." (III, p. 243 A; p. 282 E) These are the areas depending on whichcommunication may differ. He says further: "The philosophical sciences donot show such differences. They [233] have developed uniformly, asrequired by the very nature of thinking, which is concerned with theperception of existing things as they are, whether corporeal, spiritual,celestial, elemental, abstract, or material. These sciences show nodifferences." (III, p. 244 A; p. 282 E)

Differences concerning the first category, says Ibn Khaldun are becauseof differences among the various religions and organizations, andconcerning historical sciences, it is because of differences in the outwardcharacter of historical information. This makes him define the purposesthat must be born in mind in literary composition. The first purpose, hesays, is "The invention of a science with its subjects, its division intochapters and sections and the discussion of its problems. Or the inventionof problems and topics of research which occur to a competent scholarand which he wants to communicate to someone else, so that they maybecome generally known and useful." (III, p. 249 A; p. 285 E)

The second purpose is, when one finds out that the discussion and worksof ancient scholars are difficult to understand, to undertake an"...interpretational approach to books on the intellectual and traditional

(sciences). It is a noble Chapter." (III, p. 245 A; p. 285 E)

The third approach is when "some later scholar may come across an erroror mistake in discussions by ancient scholars of renowned merit andfamous authority as teachers." The purpose will then be the "discovery ofthe mistake in writing, so that (future) student may learn from theexplanation of it. (III, p. 245-246 A; p. 285 E)

The fourth approach is when a particular discipline may be incomplete, Inthis case the purpose will be to "...supply these lacking problems, inorder to perfect the discipline by [234]having all its problems and detailstreated and leaving no room for deficiency in it." (III, p. 246 A; p. 285-286 E)

The fifth approach is when the problems of a particular science have beentreated without (the proper) arrangement into chapters and withoutorder. The purpose then will be to "...arrange and improve on theproblems and put every problem in the chapter where it belongs." (III, p.246 A; p. 285-286 E)

The sixth approach is when the problems of a certain science existscattered among other sciences. The purpose will then be to collect itsproblems so that a new discipline make its appearance. (III, p. 246 A; p.285-286 E)

The seventh and last approach is when "Something in the main scholarlyworks may be too long and prolix. One will then try to compose a briefand succinct abridgment, omitting all repetitions." (III, p. 247 A; p. 287 E)

These are the main purposes which everyone must, according to IbnKhaldun, have in mind when concerning literary composition.

4. 6. 4 Methods of instruction

As to his methods of instruction or pedagogy and under the title "Thegreat number of scholarly works available is an obstacle on the path toattaining scholarship", Ibn Khaldun says that "among the things that areharmful to the human quest for knowledge and to the attainment of athorough scholarship are the great number of works (available), the largevariety in technical terminology (needed for purposes) of instruction, andthe numerous (different) methods (used in those works). The student is[235] required to have a ready knowledge of all that. Only then is heconsidered an accomplished scholar. Thus, the student must know all the(works), or most of them, and observe the methods used in them. Hiswhole lifetime would not suffice to know all the literature existing in asingle discipline, even if he were to devote himself entirely to it. Thus, hemust of necessity fall short of attaining scholarship" (III, p. 248 A; p. 288 E)

According to Ibn Khaldun, education originates from the desire of thehuman intellect for knowledge and research. Then, the effort must beconcentrated on finding the means that could canalize the process ofacquirement of knowledge and its mastery. The more the human being

searches. the more he accumulates knowledge and experience throughhis research efforts, his interaction with the society, its elite and scholars.Though education and acquirement of knowledge is something natural tohuman beings. It differs, as to its quality, according to the environmentof the individual. The more the society develops, the more educationcould develop to a better level, all dependant on the type ofdevelopment. A social development that results in the affluence ofeducational works might, as well, constitute a certain hindrance. IbnKhaldun is also against an overproduction of brief handbooks. He says:"The great number of brief handbooks available on scholarly subjects isdetrimental to the process of instruction." (III, p. 250 A; p. 290 E) He saysthat scholars often abridge the main scholarly works "...in order to makeit easier (for students) to acquire expert knowledge of them. This has acorrupting influence upon the process of instruction and is detrimental tothe attainment of scholarship. For it confuses the beginner by presentingthe final results of a discipline [236] to him before he is prepared forthem. This is a bad method of instruction...It also involves a great deal ofwork for the student." (III, p. 250 A; p. 291 E) In addition "...the (scholarly)habit that results from receiving instruction from brief handbooks evenwhen it is at its best and is not accompanied by any flaw is inferior to thehabits resulting from the study of more extensive and lengthy works. Thelatter contain a great amount of repetition and lengthiness but both areuseful for the acquisition of a perfect habit. When there is little repetitionand inferior habit is the result. This is the case with the abridgments."(III, p. 251 A; p. 291 E)

The student, therefore, must - according to Ibn Khaldun - be preparedfor learning and information must be given to him gradually in a form ofa dialogue between the teacher and the student. Thus the latter mustneither be encumbered with books nor be motivated to depend on uselessabridgements. In addition the theoretical and the experimental aspects oflearning must so far as this is possible, be tied together.

Under the title "The right attitude in scientific instruction and toward themethod of giving such instruction", Ibn Khaldun presents his method ofeducation in three phases. The first is the phase of acquirement of thehabit of learning 249characterized as a brief introduction phase. Thesecond is the phase whereby to better the habit of learnings 250

Explanation, argumentation, similarities and differences could here bediscovered. The third phase is that of research where minitiousverifications leading to the mastery of the habit of the science understudy. He says: "It should be known that the teaching of scientificsubjects to students is effective only when it proceeds gradually.... Atfirst, (the teacher) presents (the student) with the principal problemswithin each chapter of a given discipline. He acquaints him with them by[237] commenting on them in a summary fashion. In the course of doingso he observes the student's intellectual potential and his readiness forunderstanding the material that will come his way until the end of thediscipline under consideration (is reached). In the process (the student)acquires the habit of the science (he studies). However that habit will bean approximate and weak one. The most it can do is to enable the

student to understand the discipline (he studies) and to know itsproblems. (The teacher) then leads the student back over the discipline asecond time. He gives him instruction in it on a higher level. He no longergives a summary but full commentaries and explanations. He mentions tohim the existing differences of opinion and the form these differencestake all the way through to the end of the discipline under consideration.Thus the student's (scholarly) habit is improved. Then (the teacher) leadsthe student back again, now that he is solidly grounded. He leavesnothing (that is) complicated, vague or obscure, unexplained. He bares allthe secrets (of the discipline) to him. As a result the student when hefinishes with the discipline has acquired the habit of it. This is theeffective method of instruction. As one can see it requires a threefoldrepetition. Some students can get through it with less than thatdepending on their natural dispositions and qualifications." (III, p. 251-252A; p. 292-293 E)

Ibn Khaldun continues that "Preparedness for and receptivity to scientificknowledge and understanding grow gradually. At the beginning, thestudent is completely unable to understand any but a very few (points).(His understanding is) only approximate and general and (can beachieved only) with the help of pictures (muthul) derived from sensualperception. His preparedness then, keeps growing gradually...when hefaces the problems of the discipline under consideration and has themrepeated to him and advances from approximate understanding of themto a complete higher knowledge. Thus the habit of preparedness andeventually. that of attainment materialize in the student until he has a[238] comprehensive knowledge of the problem of the discipline hestudies. But if a student is exposed to the final results at the beginning ,while he is still unable to understand and comprehend anything and is stillfar from being prepared to understand, his mind is not acute enough tograsp them. He gets the impression that scholarship is difficult andbecomes loath to occupy himself with it. He constantly dodges and avoidsit. This is the result of poor instruction, and nothing else." (III, p. 252-253A; p. 293 E)

lbn Khaldun then turns to the teacher and says: "The teacher should notask more from a student than that he understand the book he is engagedin studying. in accordance with his class (age group) and his receptivityto instruction..." Further, he says that "The teacher should not bring inproblems other than those found in that particular book, until the studentknows the whole (book) from beginning to end, is acquainted with itspurpose, and has gained a habit from it, when he then can apply to other(books)" (III, p. 253 A; p. 293-294 E)

Ibn Khaldun means that after acquiring the habit of one discipline, thestudent will be prepared for learning all the others and his interest willeventually motivate him to advance to higher learning and the result willbe acquisition of a complete mastery of scholarship. Further he says that"It is also necessary (for the teacher) to avoid prolonging the period ofinstruction in a single discipline or book, by breaks in the sessions andlong intervals between them, This causes (the student) to forget and

disrupts the nexus between the different problems (of the discipline beingstudied). The result of such interruption is that attainment of the(scholarly) habit becomes difficult. If the first and last things of adiscipline are present in the mind and prevent the effects of forgetfulness,the (scholarly) habit is more easily acquired, more firmly established, andcloser to becoming a (true) colouring." (III, p. 253 A; p. 293 E)

[239] Furthermore, Ibn Khaldun says "A good and necessary method andapproach in instruction is not to expose the student to two disciplines atthe time. Otherwise, he will rarely master one of them, since he has todivide his attention and is diverted from each of them by his attempts tounderstand the other." (III, p. 254 A; p. 294-295 E)

Ibn Khaldun then turns to the student himself and says: "You, student,should realize that I am here giving you useful (hints) for your study. Ifyou accept them and follow them assiduously, you will find a great andnoble treasure. As an introduction that will help you to understand them,I shall tell you the following: " (III, p. 254 A; p. 295 E) Then he offers thestudent his advice. First, he explains to him man's ability to think andsays: "At times, (thinking) means the beginning of orderly and wellarranged human actions. At other times, it means the beginning of theknowledge of something that had not been available (before)." (III, p. 254A; p. 295 E)

About how thinking functions, he adds that "The (ability to think) isdirected toward some objective whose two extremes it has perceived, and(now) it desires to affirm or deny it. In almost no time, it recognises themiddle term which combines the two (extremes), if(the objective) isuniform. Or,(the ability to think) goes on to obtain another middle term,if (the objective) is manifold, It thus finds its objective, It is in this waythat the ability to think...works." (III, p. 254-255 A; p. 295 E)

Ibn Khaldun then explains logic to the student and says the "... craft oflogic is (knowledge of the) way in which the natural ability to think andspeculate operates." (III, p. 255 A; p. 295 E) Logic, he adds, helps us todistinguish correct operations from erroneous ones, "To be right, though,is in the essence of the ability to think, However, in very rare cases, it isaffected by error, This comes from perceiving the two extremes in formsother than are properly theirs, as the result of confusion in the order andarrangment of the propositions [240] from which the conclusion is drawn.Logic helps to avoid such traps. Thus, it is a technical procedure whichparallels man's natural ability to think and conforms to the way in whichif functions, Since it is a technical procedure, it can be dispensed with inmost cases." (III, p. 255 A; p. 295-296 E) Because of this parallelism, saysIbn Khaldun, many excellent thinkers could dispense with logic, usingtheir natural ability to think at its best. Another advice, beside logic,which is involved in the process of studying is "...the knowledge of wordsand the way in which they indicate ideas in the mind by deriving themfrom what the forms (of the letters) say, in the case of writing, and fromwhat the tongue - speech - says in the case of spoken utterances." (III, p.255 A; p. 295-296 E)

The student, says Ibn Khaldun, must pass through all these veils in orderto reach his objective. But he adds that not everyone is able to passthrough all these stages quickly and easily during the process ofinstruction. He therefore thinks that whenever the student finds thatdifficult and disturbing for his mind, he should cast all these technicalprocedures off and find his refuge in the natural ability to think. This, forIbn Khaldun, is the natural means for the perception of the truth.Because logic only describes the process of thinking and mostly parallelsit. Under the title "Study of the auxiliary sciences should not be prolongedand their problems should not be treated in detail", (III, p. 258 A; p. 298 E)

Ibn Khaldun says that "...teachers of the auxiliary sciences ought not todelve too deeply into them and increase the number of their problems.They must advise the student concerning their purpose and have himstop there, Those who have the mind to go more deeply into them andconsider themselves capable and able to do so, may choose (such acourse) for themselves." (III, p. 259 A; p. 300 E)

[241]These are sciences which are auxiliary to other sciences says IbnKhaldun such as philology logic and similar subject Under the title "Theinstruction of children and the different methods employed in the Muslimcities", (III, p. 260 A; p. 300 E) Ibn Khaldun exposed these differentmethods, does not agree with the method of memorisation of religion byyoung people when this is not tied to understanding. It could exhaust thehuman body in the process of learning. Montossori and moderneducationalists would surely agree with this. The general objective ofeducation according to Ibn Khaldun is not only that of transferringcustoms norms and sciences...from a person to another or from ageneration to another but it is also to polish the qualities of humannessin the youth.

Under the title "Severity to students does them harm" (III, p. 264 A; p. 305E), he says: "This comes about as follows. Severe punishment in thecourse of instruction does harm to the student. especially to little childrenbecause it belongs among (the things that make for a) bad habit.Students. slaves. and servants who are brought up with injustice and(tyrannical) force are overcome by it. It makes them feel oppressed andcauses them to lose their energy. It makes them lazy and induces themto lie and be insincere. That is their outward behaviour differs from whatthey are thinking because they are afraid that they will have to suffertyrannical treatment (if they tell the truth). Thus they are taught deceitand trickery. This becomes their custom and character. They lose thequality that goes with social and political organization and makes peoplehuman 251 namely, (the desire to) protect and defend themselves andtheir homes and they become dependent on others. Indeed their soulsbecome too indolent to (attempt to) acquire the virtues and goodcharacter qualities. Thus they fall short of their potentialities and do notreach the limit of their humanity. As a [242] result, they revert to everynation that fell under the yoke of tyranny and learned through it themeaning of injustice. One may check this by (observing) any person who

is not in control of his own affairs and has no authority on his side toguarantee his (safety). One will thus be able to infer (from the observablefacts) that things are (as I have stated.)" (III, p. 264 A; p. 305-306 E)

Ibn Khaldun similarly to Montaigne and the new educationalists. is againstthe method of filling up the student with information. He recommends amild discipline and graduation in acquirement.. Learning must start withthe easy and simple, or that which equates the level of the intellect andeventually progress towards higher objectives. Explanation becomesbetter with examples also practical recourse to dialogue argumentationand to other structured means of interpretation while paying attention toindividual differences. One of the most important points of Ibn Khaldun'spedagogy is that he did not neglect to connect education and learning toboth human psychology and to the prevailing social conditions. Hebelieves that human intellect receives different impulses and acquirementvaries with the different stages of development of civilization. the utmostutility being in the middle of the civilized society where all types of crafts- including education and a multitude of possibilities are offered. In sucha milieu acquirement happens both through theory practice andparticipation. The practical target or main objective. behind education andlearning is to help human beings towards consciousness and a better life.

A = In the Arabic manuscript of QuatremreE = in the English translation of Rosenthal

- Labica, G. Esquisse d'une sociologie de la religion chez Ibn Khaldoun, inLa pense, pp. 3-24, October, 1965.

- Waltzer, Richard: Aspects of Islamic Political Thought: Al-Farabi and IbnXaldun, in Oriens, XVI, Leiden, 1963.

Notes: chapter ??

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A complete copy of this research can be obtained from the Library of the University ofOslo, Faculty of Social Sciences, under ISBN 82-570-0743-9.

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