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Comparative CriminologyInternational Journal of Offender Therapy and
DOI: 10.1177/0306624X052779432005; 49; 652Int J Offender Ther Comp Criminol
Mally Shechory and Sarah Ben-David
Aggression and Anxiety in Rapists and Child Molesters
http://ijo.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/49/6/652 The online version of this article can be found at:
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Aggression and Anxiety inRapists and Child Molesters
Mally Shechory
Sarah Ben-David
Abstract: This study expands the empirical and theoretical understanding of the distinction
betweenthosewhoperpetrate sexual assaults againstchildren(childmolesters)and thosewho
perpetrate them against adults (rapists). Two questionnaires were completed by 88 incarcer-
ated,male sexual offenders(45 childmolesters and43 rapists):the Spielberger statetrait anxi-
ety inventory and the Buss-Durkee hostility inventory. It was found that the rapists’ level of
aggression was significantly higher than thatof the childmolesters.No significantdifferences
in anxietylevels were foundbetween thetwo groups.The results are discussedin terms of their
relevance to theory and clinical practice.
Keywords: rapists; child molesters; aggression; anxiety; victim age
Sex offender treatment, parole, and sentencing policy are, and should be, influ-
enced by both theoretical considerations and the danger they pose to society
(Bumby & Hansen, 1997; Finkelhor, 1984; Hall, 1990; Marshall, 1993). Hence,
understanding the characteristics and specific attributes of sex offender sub-
groups is important, not only for research and theoretical considerations but also
for treatment and criminal justice policies. Such insights may facilitate further
understanding, risk assessments, and treatment success.
Research on sex offender classification (Knight & Prentky, 1990; Knight,
Rosenberg, & Schneider, 1985) supported the notion that sex offenders are a het-erogeneous group, offering divisions such as anger rape versus power rape
(Groth, Burges, & Holmstrom, 1977). Others suggestedthatPsychopathy Check-
list-Revised scores may be useful for group discriminations between high and
low-risk offenders (Edens, Petrila, & Buffington-Vollum, 2001).
Several studies (Bruce, Pierson, & Kuznetsov, 1993; Groth & Birnbaum,
1979; Hillbrand, Foster, & Hirt, 1990; Knight et al., 1985; Marshall, Barbaree, &
Fernandez, 1995; Valliant & Antonowicz, 1992; Valliant & Blasutti, 1992) pro-
posed victimage as a variablefor differentiatingbetween sex offendercategories.
Of particular importance is whether the victim was an adult or a minor. In their
study, Kuznestov and Pierson (1992) uphold the view that the ageof the victimis
NOTE: Address all correspondence to Mally Shechory, Departmentof Criminology, Bar Ilan Univer-
sity, Ramat-Gan and the College of Judea and Samaria, Ariel, 44837, Israel. Tel.: +972-3-906-6101,
fax: +972-3-906-6161. E-mail: [email protected].
International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 49(6), 2005 652-661
DOI: 10.1177/0306624X05277943
© 2005 Sage Publications
652
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relevant to an understanding of sexual offenses. For example, the child molester
was different on a number of parameters from the rapist. In addition, the classifi-cation, according to victim age, was acknowledged and adopted by the criminal
justice system in many jurisdictions.This is one of the main reasons why we have
also adopted these classifications.
In comparisons between rapists and child molesters, research findings sug-
gested that although rapists are more emotionally restrained and antisocial, child
molesters are more regressive (Bruce et al., 1993; Finkelhor & Araji, 1986;
Hillbrand, Foster, & Hirt, 1990; Kalichman, 1991; Overholser & Beck, 1986;
Walters, 1987; Ward & Hudson, 1996). Rapists were found to be defensive,
aggressive, hostile, resentful, and alienated (Armentroaut & Hauer, 1978;
Finkelhor & Araji, 1986; Kalichman, 1991; Panton, 1978), whereas child
molesters had more emotional disturbances, low levels of self-esteem, a lack of
self-confidence, a lack of emotional maturity, and high levels of emotional pres-
sure and anxiety. Both rapists and child molesters suffered from a deficit of inti-
mate relations with other people and loneliness (Seidman, Marshall, Hudson, &
Robertson, 1994; Simkins, 1993). Yet child molesters were more fearful of inti-
macy in close relationships than were rapists (Marshall, 1989; Ward & Hudson,
1996). They showed either a fearful or preoccupied attachment style (Ward &
Hudson, 1996).
In general, sex offenders were found to have more affective psychopathology,
such as anxiety, posttraumatic stress disorder, and major depression; child
molesters were found to be more neurotic, affective, and socially impaired than
the rapists (Ahlmeyer, Kleinsasser, Stoner, & Retzlaff, 2003). In addition, child
molesters are traditionally portrayed as less aggressive than rapists, and sexual
offenses against children have often been characterized as nonviolent. It was
found that rapists often have strong, aggressive features (Bartol, 2002; Bruce
et al., 1993; Kalichman, 1991; Shealy, Kalichman, Handerson, Szymanowski, &
Mckee,1991). However,as Knight et al. (1985) noted, studies that “strongly sug-
gest that popular conceptions of child molesters as less physically violent than
rapists have overlooked important data” (p. 231). Some research indicates that a
subgroup of very violent offenders does exist. For example, Stermac, Hall, and
Henskens (1989), in their examination of the nature of adult sexual contact with
children among a clinical sampleof both familialand nonfamilial sexual offenses
against children, found that both groups of offenders had committed largely
violent assaults against children.
Based on former studies, it was reasonable to consider anxiety and aggression
as important variables for distinguishing between rapists and child molesters
(Kalichman, 1991; Marshall et al., 1995; Valliant & Antonowicz, 1992). Thus, it
was hypothesized that differences between rapists and child molesters would befound in the levels of anxiety and aggression and that rapists would have a lower
level of anxiety and a higher level of aggression than child molesters.
Rapists and Aggression 653
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METHOD
PARTICIPANTS
From a list provided by the prison authority using a random numbers list, 88
incarcerated, convicted male sexual offenders were randomly selected. They
were divided into twogroups: 43 rapists and 45 child sexual molesters. The crite-
ria for group allocationwere based on information from their files. In accordance
with theoretical definitions (i.e., Bruce et al., 1993; Hillbrand et al., 1990;
Kalichman, 1991; Overholser & Beck, 1986; Walters, 1987), the rapist group
included sex offenders charged with the rapes of females aged 16 and older. Two
cases of familial rape were excluded.
The child molester group included sex offenders whose victims were girls
under theage of 12.They consistedof 22 incestoffenders (the offenderwaseither
a biological parent or step-parent of the victim) and 23 nonincest offenders (the
victim was not a family member). Because no significant differences were found
between the types of child molesters, all 45 of the offenders were grouped
together.
DESIGN AND PROCEDURE
The participants were tested individually. Eachof themreceived twoquestion-
naires. The Spielberger state trait anxiety inventory questionnaire included 40
items and measured anxiety (Spielberger, 1966, 1972, 1975). Both state (α = .91)
and trait (α = .88) anxieties were calculated by this self-report inventory.
To evaluate the level of aggression, the Buss-Durkee hostility inventory ques-
tionnairewas used.A 75-item true-false scale measuredseven hostilitysubscales,
five of whichrepresented instrumental aggression (assault , indirect hostility, irri-
tability, negativism, verbal hostility) and two of which represented emotional
aggression (resentment and suspicion; Buss, 1961, 1971; Buss & Durkee, 1957).
According to Buss and Durkee, Cronbach’s alpha ranged between .46 and .78. In
the present study, Cronbach’s alpha ranged between .81 and .54.
RESULTS
Rapists and child molesters had similar educational and occupational back-
grounds, but they differed in age and marital status. Molesters ( M = 43; SD =
10.65) were older than rapists ( M = 32.4; SD = 7.65), had a higher marriage rate
(χ2
= 13.03; p < .01), and had morechildren(χ2
= 12.29; p < .001).Themajority of the participants in both groups did not complete high school and were employed
inunskilled jobs at thetimeof theirarrest. Neither group differed in thenumber of
incarcerations (rapists: M = 2.22; SD = 1.20; molesters: M = 2.2; SD = 1.00).
654 International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology
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Approximately one third (32.6%) of therapists used drugs, whereas only 6.7% of
the molesters did.
Multivariate analysis of variance revealed no significant differences between
the rapists and the child molesters in levels of trait and state anxiety. However,
compared to the general population (Spielberger, 1975), both groups, the rapists
(F [2,41]= 17.46; p < .001) andthe childmolesters(F [2,43]= 12.08; p < .001) suf-
fered from a high level of state and trait anxiety (Table 1).
As Table 2 shows, rapists were significantly (F [8,79] = 2.16; p < .05) more
aggressive than child molesters in all pertinent aspects except in irritability.
Compared to the norm in the general population, as defined by Buss andDurkee (1957; M = 46.77; SD = 15.52), rapists were more aggressive ( M = 54.45;
SD = 18.74; p < .001), andchild molesters( M = 40.87;SD = 16.03; p < .001) were
less aggressive.
Rapists and Aggression 655
TABLE 1
Means and Standard Deviations for the Spielberger State Trait Anxiety Inventory
Rapists Child Molesters General Population
Variable M SD M SD M SD
State anxiety 43.54 13.70 41.20 13.10 31.50 7.14
Trait anxiety 45.54 11.31 43.04 10.99 37.40 8.16
TABLE 2
Means and Standard Deviations for the Buss-Durkee Hostility Inventory.
Rapists Child MolestersVariable M SD M SD F
Total aggression 54.45 18.74 40.87 16.03 13.38***
Instrumental aggression
Assault 51.16 32.99 29.88 25.27 11.61***
Indirect hostility 48.83 26.68 30.48 22.51 12.22***
Irritability 44.61 22.60 35.57 21.98 2.87
Negativism 65.70 29.40 47.22 29.80 8.57**
Verbal hostility 61.24 23.18 44.69 25.90 9.95***
Emotional aggression
Resentment 49.17 26.14 40.95 23.32 2.43
Suspicion 60.43 23.13 56.30 23.02 .71
* p < .05. ** p < .01. *** p < .001.
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Thelinks between thevariables (anxiety andaggression)were examinedusing
Pearson’s correlation ratios. Significant correlations between trait anxiety andgeneral aggression (r = .30; p < .01) and trait anxiety and suspicionscale (r = .31;
p < .01) were found.
DISCUSSION
Corroborating previous studies (Armentrout & Hauer, 1978; Bruce et al.,
1993; Eccles, Marshall, & Barbaree, 1994; Kalichman, 1991), the data of the
present study showed that the rapists were more aggressive than thechild molest-
ers. Furthermore, therapists scoredhigher on the level of aggression compared to
the general population, whereas the child molesters scored lower. As aforemen-
tioned, aggression is considerably less common in child molesters. Thus,
although most molestation does not include penetration and is limited to mastur-
bation and fondling (Bradford, Bloomberg, & Bourget, 1988), other findings
showing that child molesters committed largely violent assaults against children
will not be ignored (e.g., Stermacet al., 1989). However, as Stermac et al. (1989)
noticed, thepopulation used in their study wastakenonly from patients who were
referred to an in-patient psychiatric assessment. As they mentioned, it is conceiv-
able that this overall sample represents individuals who have committed more
serious and violent offenses than offenders who may not undergo psychiatric
assessments. Therefore,thisremains to be determined by further investigations.
Contradictory to previous studies (Kalichman, 1991; Marshall et al., 1995;
Valliant& Antonowicz, 1992;Ward& Hudson, 1996), rapists andchildmolesters
had similar levels of anxiety, whichwere,however, higher (particularly regarding
social anxiety) than the general population (see Armentrout & Hauer, 1978;
Finkelhor & Araji, 1986; Groth & Birnbaum, 1978; Groth & Hobson, 1983;
Hillbrand et al., 1990; Hoyer, Kunst, & Schmidt, 2001; Hunter, Childers, Roque,
& Hayden, 1990; Seidman et al., 1994; Walters, 1987).
Onepossible explanationfor the lack of distinction between therapists andthe
child molestersin the levels of anxiety maybe that thesample in thepresent study
consistedof inmates. Rapists andchild molesters, as a resultof also being consid-
ered sex offenders, have an equally low status in prison. For sex offenders, being
in prison is more stressful than for other criminals because they are exposed to
more hostilityandviolence from theother inmates. Forexample,Hopkins (1993)
found that incarcerated rapists appeared to be more socially anxious than incar-
cerated pedophiles. This may increase the rapists’anxiety levels, thereby equaliz-
ing the anxiety levels of rapists and pedophiles and blurring the differences
between these twogroups. In other words, it is possible that the impact of impris-onment was so extreme that it washed out any differences that might have previ-
ously existed between rapists and child molesters.
Although this may be a plausible explanation, we want to offer a more pro-
found explanation. It is theoretically possible that rapists andchild molesters suf-
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fer from different types of anxiety and not necessarily from different levels of the
same type of anxiety.Despite the existing theoretical framework that emphasizes anxiety as being
significant in the etiology of sexual offences, little attention has been directed
toward thedifferentiationof theanxiety types of sexual offenders. Based on theo-
retical considerations, an alternative interpretation of our findings is proposed to
account for this incompatibility. Contrary to studies from the middle of the 20th
century, recent studies about sex offenders are largely from thecognitive psycho-
logical viewpoint. Although previous studies ascribed special importance to
examining the role of anxiety in the etiology of sexual deviation and offences,
contemporary studies seem to be less interested in the anxiety levels of these
offenders.
Karpman (1963)notedthat sexual impulsesof rapists andpedophiliacs aredis-
torted by crippling anxiety. “Pedophiliacs are particularly afflicted with anxiety
regarding their sexual potency” (p. 346), whereas
the neurotic mechanism operative in rapists is based on an underlying inferiorityfeeling that is reflectedin sexual attitudes. Theform taken bysuch feelings is a con-cealed fearof the usual masculine sentiments andattitudes surrounding sexual con-tact with women. (p. 347)
Therefore, we propose that both sexual offender groups suffer from sexual
anxiety, but they differ in the type of sexual anxiety. Consequently, a difference
between their sexual objects or victims exists. Rapists arecharacterizedwith a rel-
ativelyhightrait anxietyand lowself-esteem in theirheterosexual relations. Child
molesters suffer from anxiety about sexual relationships with adult women.
Therefore, they tend to have sexual relationships with children (Simkins, 1993).
They have been shown to have unusual amounts of sexual anxiety (Goldstein,Kant, & Hartman, 1973).
Psychoanalytic theory asserts that child molesters do not successfully control
theiroedipal urges.In theirmind, sex with anadultwoman is tantamount to incest.
Thus, sexual relationships with children circumvent their oedipal dilemma.
Whereas theoedipal dynamics in abusive behavior is moot, child molesterssuffer
pervasive feelings of inadequacy and rejection. These emotions stem from emo-
tionally neglectful or abusive parents (Levy & Simpson, 1998). In addition,
molesters’ heterosexual, early-adult relationships are characterized by varying
degrees of sexual anxiety and fear of loss or rejection. Early traumatic sexual
experiencesmaylead child molesters to associateadult sexual behavior with anx-
iety andemotional distress (Langevin, 1988).As a result, it isplausiblethatpoten-
tial childabusers renounce thedangerous worldof adult sexuality andturn tochil-
dren as sources of emotionalandphysical intimacy andsexual gratification (Levy
& Simpson, 1998).Thechildmolester’s anxiety andresultant impotenceare often
interpreted as a lack of sexual interest in adult women (Langevin, 1988). Most
child sexual abuse does not include penetration but primarily consists of acts of
Rapists and Aggression 657
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masturbation and fondling (Bradford et al., 1988). Child molesters seem to fear
the sexual act.Rapists, on the other hand, we suggest, do not suffer anxiety from the sexual
act, but they areapprehensiveof thebehaviors associated with normalsexual rela-
tions (Cohen, Seghorn, & Calmas, 1971; Langevin, 1983). It seems that they feel
inferior regarding their masculinity (Langevin, 1983). Their relationships with
women can be seen as an expression of their feelings of inferiority, and they have
difficulties in forming and sustaining intimate relationships with women. Conse-
quently, they have a history of either no romantic relationships with women or of
futile attempts to form them (Halleck, 1976). Thus, rape may be considered a
man’s desperate attempt to prove his masculinity, his sexual capability, and his
ability to control women. Rape is theproduct of therapist’s feelings of inferiority
and difficulty in forming intimate relationships. The rapist satisfies his need for
sexual dominance by degrading the sexual object through rape and sadistic or
perverse acts (Langevin, 1983).
Based on this assumption, we suggest that Spielberger’s test is appropriate for
distinguishing between the anxiety levels in varied sexual offender groups and
normal populations. However, it is inappropriate for distinguishingbetween anxi-
ety level differences in sexual offender groups. As aforementioned, both child
molesters and rapists suffer from anxiety primarily related to sexual contact with
theadultwomen. Yet thefocusof theiranxiety differs: Molestersare afraidof per-
forming the sexual act, whereas rapists fear sexual relationships.
In conclusion, child molesters’ lack of interest in having sexual intercourse
with adultwomenmaybe explained by theirhigh level of anxiety related to theact
itself, which results ina form of impotence. Incontrast,rapists sufferfromanxiety
about their sexual function and from inferiority regarding their masculinity.
Therefore, they have a high level of anxiety related to sexual relationships. This
distinction is important for determining treatment, risk assessment, and
recidivism.
There are several considerations that should be noted concerning the present
study. First, the lackof significant differences between rapists and child molesters
in levels of anxiety suggests that further inquiry about the type of anxiety charac-
teristic of sex offenders is needed. Although anxiety hasbeen recognized as a sig-
nificant factor in theetiology and treatmentof sexual offenders, there is a scarcity
of empirical research on this issue.
In addition, theparticipants in this study were incarcerated, untreatedcriminal
sex offenders. Therefore, caution should be exercised in applying these results to
nonconvictedand forensic hospital populations. Additionally, the composition of
thechild molester samplewasheterosexual, which provided themost meaningful
comparison group to therapists. This factor also limitsthe application of thefind-ings to homosexual child molesters.
Finally, in the present study, grouping together offenders on the basis of the
victim’s age reduced the heterogeneity of participants. Other variables, such as
victim-offender relationships and the amount and degree of violence used, may
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also provide pertinent information to further understanding about the differential
characteristics of the variety of sex offenders.
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Mally Shechory, Ph.D.
The College of Judea and Samaria
44837 Ariel
Israel
Sarah Ben-David, Ph.D.
Department of Criminology
Bar-Ilan University
52900 Ramat-Gan
Israel
Rapists and Aggression 661
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