BARSOVIA Despus de una guerra, las ciudades son afectadas en cuatro aspectos: el econmico, el poblacional, el cultural y en su identidad. En primera instancia, las ciudades decaen en trminos econmicos puesto que no hay bienes que se puedan producir; en cuanto a la poblacin, las prdidas de vidas humanas son irremplazables; desde el punto de vista cultural, se ven sometidas al nuevo orden impuesto por el grupo agresor; y en cuanto a la identidad, luego de la catstrofe, con la destruccin fsica y cultural se pierden los elementos y expresiones que las representa y las identifica.Los cambios sociales politos e ideolgicos dieron pie al surgimiento de una nueva generacin de escritores as como el surgimiento de dibujantes que se basaron en novelas antiguas para crear un nuevo generar literario que mezclaba la historieta occidental con la ancestral historieta NiponaDesde que Polonia recuper su independencia, en 1918, luego de haber terminado la Primera Guerra Mundial, tuvo siempre una gran preocupacin por la conservacin de los monumentos histricos y culturales de su ciudad capital, Varsovia. En 1928, tan solo diez aos despus de ser un pas libre, el Ministerio de Cultura y Artes de Polonia expidi una ley en la cual se exiga la proteccin tanto del centro histrico de la ciudad y sus alrededores, como de parques, jardines y monumentos Fue en Varsovia donde los nazis inventaron un programa sistemtico de aniquilacin cultural que, mediante una alianza entre la fuerza area alemana y arquitectos nazis, consisti en la identificacin de monumentos histricos, edificios diseados por arquitectos distinguidos, construcciones en donde haba vivido gente ilustre polaca, 164 enero - junio de 2009 Ciudad de la posguerra lugares donde se haba desarrollado la historia de Polonia, edificios significativos de diferentes periodos, grandes catedrales, palacios y en general todos los espacios en donde se haba construido la cultura de Varsovia a travs de ms de setecientos aos de historia. Luego las fuerzas alemanas ocuparon la ciudad y con la destruccin de esos lugares la despojaron de su identidad y su memoriaLos nazis, luego de aplicar este programa sistemtico de aniquilacin cultural, decidieron reconfigurar a Varsovia, a su manera, mediante la aplicacin del Plan Pabst, nombre que se deriva del creador del programa, el arquitecto nazi Friedrich Pabst. Este plan propuso que la actividad econmica principal de Varsovia debera ser la agricultura y que su poblacin debera ser de 130.000 habitantes alemanesUno de estos estudios, hecho desde el punto de vista de la arquitectura y cuyo director, Szymon Syrkus, fue deportado a Auschwitz, analizaba las necesidades de alojamiento y de industria para el momento en que acabara la guerra. De la misma forma, el Departamento de Planificacin del Consejo Municipal de Varsovia (economistas), en asociacin con el Estudio para la Planificacin Regional, cre una comisin secreta en la que estudiaban la reconstruccin de Varsovia mediante rutas de circulacin de bienes y servicios. Algunos de estos grupos ilegales de arquitectos y urbanistas desarrollaron sus planes en medio de una ciudad ardiendo en llamas y los ocultaron enterrndolos en las afueras de Varsovia hasta que terminara la guerra. La operacin clandestina ms interesante ocurri en la Facultad de Arquitectura de la Universidad Tcnica de Varsovia y consisti en capturar imgenes y detalles del paisaje urbano en planos, dibujos y cuadros para que luego de la guerra sirvieran para reconstruir la ciudad. La reconstruccin de la ciudad tambin se bas en unos retratos muy detallados del siglo XVIII de los pintores venecianos Bernardo Bellotto y Antonio Canaletto. La Universidad haba pasado a ser una escuela secundaria por el mando de la fuerza alemana, pero la Facultad de Arquitectura y Urbanismo, en un acto de resistencia moral, sigui impartiendo la educacin de profesionales. As, ms de 150 estudiantes participaron clandestinamente en la planificacin de Varsovia, realizaron sus trabajos de forma tal que si eran descubiertos, sus planes parecieran creados antes de la invasin. La herencia de Varsovia fue registrada metdicamente de tal forma que la ciudad, la cultura y la memoria se pudieran reconstruir. Estos documentos fueron ocultados en el monasterio de Piotrkow, fuera de la ciudad.MANCHESTER Before 1760, England was a predominantly agricultural country with a relatively small population of less than 9 million. The standard of living for the majority of the population was low. There was virtually no industry, at least in the modern sense of the term. The social structure was traditional and hierarchical, and the possibility of upward social mobility was slight. And an aristocratic oligarchy ruled the country and controlled the political system established after the Glorious Revolution of 1688. By 1850, the entire economic, political, and social landscape of Great Britain had changed, largely because of the Industrial Revolution. An explanation of how this revolution came about must begin with the identification of the factors that made it possible but not inevitable.Early in the 18th century, demand for cotton cloth grew dramatically, because of both an internal and an overseas market. But existing methods of production, the so-called domestic or putting out system, were inadequate to meet this demand. Entrepreneurs took unfinished wool or cotton fiber to rural peasant homes, where it was spun into thread. The entrepreneur then took the thread to a weaver, and so on through a complex series of stages until a finshed piece of cloth was ready for the market. The putting-out system was a social as well as an economic system, for the work was done in the home and all members of a family took part. But the cumbersome nature of this system of production limited the amount of cloth that could be produced.With the increase of cotton trading activities in Manchester, there was notable development in the transportation system of the city. Convenient transportation means were developed in order to distribute the raw materials and finished goods to different parts of the country. As a result, passenger railway came into existence to operate between Manchester and Liverpool. The canal system was also developed. Moreover, the first telephone service was introduced in a Manchester firm.A few statistics will summarize the magnitude of this revolution. In 1795, England produced 40 million yards of cloth; 55 years later, 2,025 million yards were produced. In 1785, Great Britain imported 11 million pounds of raw cotton; by 1850, imports of raw cotton were 588 million pounds. And, between 1816 and 1848, cotton cloth made up between 40 and 50% of Great Britain's exports.At first water was used, and factories had to be located near sources of water, often in remote areas. Soon, however, water power was replaced by steam power, which gave manufacturers greater freedom in the location of their factories; most were located near sources of coal, and great cities like Manchester came into being. In 1773, Manchester had a population of about 25,000 and no mills; in 1802, it had 95,000 people and 52 mills. If coal powered the Industrial Revolution, the factory system organized it, and it transformed not only the way goods were produced but the way men and women worked and lived their lives. In the factory system, production was organized on a large scale and 100s of workers were brought to the work; the work was separated from the means of production and from the product produced, with the result being that the worker learned to value the wages earned not work performed or the product produced; a separation developed between the ownership of a factory and its management; work was separated from the home and family; the worker had to learn industrial discipline; and industrial production took place in urban areas.In Manchester were located other industries: other types of cloth, like silk, were produced; there were manufactures of ribbons; industries associated with the manufacture of dyes; and factories which manufactured steam engines and mill machinery, as well as locomotives. Heavy industries like these paid wellValues of the Manchester business and merchant class: John Davies speaking at the Manchester Mechanics Institute (1828): "Man must become the architect of his own fame." Or "Each man for himself. Your bad weather, and your bad times, are my good ones." They also shared the opinions of the Manchester School of economic thought mentioned earlier.