auzoux conservacion.pdf

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VOL I Graphic documents 285

Lost fingers, scurfy skin and corroding veins

conservation of anatomical papier-mch models

by Dr Auzoux

Elizabet Nijhoff Asser*Mooie BoekenRuysdaelkade 971072 AM AmsterdamThe NetherlandsE-mail: [email protected]: www. mooieboeken.nl

Birgit ReisslandNetherlands Institute for Cultural HeritageGabriel Metsustraat 81071 EA AmsterdamE-mail: [email protected]

Bart J W GrobMuseum BoerhaaveLange St. Agnietenstraat 102312 WC LeidenThe NetherlandsE-mail: [email protected]

Eva GoetzKunsthistorisches Museum ViennaBurgring 5A-1010 ViennaAustria

E-mail: [email protected]

*Author for correspondence

Keywords

papier-mch, anatomical models, 19th century, flaking, binding media, sturgeon glue,corrosion, DNA-research

Introduction

In the 19th century, Dr Auzoux (17971880) made a legendary invention: hedeveloped anatomical models made from papier-mch that could be taken

apart simulating the dissection of a corps (Figure 1). In comparison toexisting models made from wax, wood or plaster, these new models hadseveral advantages: they were constructed from individual pieces that couldbe taken apart, the models were less sensitive to temperature, wear and tear,

were easier to make and cheaper.Worldwide several collections possess anatomical models made by the

factory of Dr Auzoux, for instance the Smithsonian National Museum ofAmerican History (NMAH, Washington, USA), and quite a few Universitycollections all over the world1. In 1980 the Boerhaave Museum in Leiden(The Netherlands) purchased a large collection of Auzoux models from thezoological laboratory of the University of Leiden. In total, their collectionconsists of 73 items: 25 human and 48 zoological models. The models werein bad condition. (Figure 2) Their surfaces were covered with ingrained dirtand showed severe flaking causing losses of the paint layers. On the contrary,the interior surface of the models was still in good condition, revealing theexquisiteness and precision of their original appearance.

In 2004, a Dutch government subsidy enabled a four-year conservationprogram for the entire collection. In order to define a suitable conservation

Abstract

The task to conserve a large collectionof severely damaged 19th centurypolychrome papier-mch anatomicalmodels by Dr Auzoux led to an

interdisciplinary cooperation betweenconservators, scientists and arthistorians. Damage included loss offunctionality due to missing elements,flaking of the exterior paint layers,ingrained dirt and corrosion of ironwires.

This paper presents a comprehensiveinvestigation into the history andmaterial-technical construction of themodels. Based on the results of visualassessment, binding media analysis,GC-MS, DNA analysis of the paint

layers, a conservation treatment strategywas developed and successfully appliedincluding surface cleaning, corrosioninhibition, consolidation of paintlayers and reconstruction of missingparts. Treatment experiences arediscussed on case studies.

Rsum

La mission de conserver une grandecollection de modles anatomiques enpapier-mch polychrome du

Dr Auzoux, datant du XIX

e

sicle etgravement endommags, a men unecollaboration interdisciplinaire entre lesconservateurs-restaurateurs, lesscientifiques et les historiens dart. Lesdommages comprenaient la perte defonctionnalit due aux lmentsmanquants, lcaillage des couches depeinture externes, la poussire incrusteet la corrosion des fils de fer. Cet articleprsente une enqute complte surlhistoire et la construction matrielle ettechnique de ces modles. En se basantsur les rsultats des observations

visuelles, de lanalyse des liants parCG-SM et de lanalyse de lADN descouches picturales, une stratgie detraitement a t dveloppe etapplique avec succs, incluant lenettoyage des surfaces, linhibition de lacorrosion, la consolidation des couchesde peinture et la reconstruction despices manquantes. Les expriences detraitement sont discutes dans lestudes de cas.

Synopsis

La tarea de conservacin delDr Auzoux de una gran coleccin demodelos anatmicos de cartn piedrapolicromado del siglo XIX gravementedeteriorados, llev a una cooperacin


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interdiciplinaria entre conservadores,cientficos e historiadores de arte. Losdaos incluan una prdida defuncionalidad debido a la falta deelementos, separacin de las capas depintura exterior, suciedad incrustada y

corrosin de los alambres de hierro.

Este documento presenta unaexhaustiva investigacin de la historia ycontruccin materio-tcnica de losmodelos. Se desarroll un tratamientode conservacin basado en losresultados de una evaluacin visual, unanlisis de los medios implicados, unacromatografa de gases-espectrometrade masas (GC-MS) y un anlisis deADN de las capas de pintura. Estetratamiento fue aplicado con xito einclua una limpieza de la superficie,

una inhibicin de la corrosin, laconsolidacin de las capas de pintura yuna reconstruccin de las partes quefaltaban. Las experiencias deltratamiento se presentan en losestudios de caso.

strategy, the conservators needed to understand how the models weremanufactured, to assess the condition of the collection, and to explain theorigin of the flaking.

A crucial invention and its commercial implementation

Louis Thomas Jerme Auzoux studied medicine at the University of Parisfrom 18161822. During his studies he was confronted with the difficultiesto dissect corpses, the bodies were awfully smelling and easily decaying dueto lacking refrigeration. Therefore, he searched for alternatives andintroduced papier-mch as a suitable material. In 1822, the 25 year old

Auzoux showed his first model of the upper part of the pelvis officially tothe Academie Royale de Mdecine. The reaction was encouraging. Over theyears, seven different male models were produced, in four different sizes. Thelargest model consisted of 130 pieces, requiring an astonishing precision formaking the different parts of the moulds.

Auzoux was a charismatic anatomist. In 1828, he opened a factory in hisbirthplace Saint-Aubin dEcrosville. (Figure 3) He inspired his employers toperform very refined and highly artistic work. Every Pentecost, he held a publiclecture on anatomy in the village square of Saint-Aubin dEcrosville. The modelsof particular organs such as the eye and ear were enlarged for clarity up to10 life-size. Inspired by the development of comparative anatomy after 1840

Auzoux began to produce models of animals and plants as well. For examplesnails, squalls, vipers, silk moths, turkeys, sea breams, May-bugs, and almost life-size horses, typical examples of French country-life. Also he made comparativeseries of organs of animals: nervous systems, alimentary canals, hearts, bloodcirculations and brains. His new models were evaluated by scientists, givingconstructive advise on anatomical details that were still under discussion.

Commercially Auzoux was very capable. In 1833 he opened a shop inParis. He sold his models to universities and to secondary schools all over the

world. At the height of his fame, he claimed to have sold his models to morethan 30 countries, as well as to the colonies. Auzouxs models were exhibitedat the Great Exhibition of 1851 in London and at the World Exhibition of1867 in Paris. He was held in great respect when he died in 1880.

Figure 1. Docteur Auzoux with male model Figure 2. The flaking problem of the Venus deMdicis, life-size female model 1852, BoerhaaveMuseum, Leiden

Figure 3. Some of the employees of the

factory of Dr Auzoux in Saint-AubindEcrosville (FR) ca. 1890

286 ICOM COMMITTEEFORCONSERVATION, 2008 V OL I


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Production methods

Valuable sources for understanding how the models were made are a shortfilm made in 1986 under the supervision of Bernard Barral, the last directorof the company, and a note of his hand dating from 19902.

Papier-mch forms were prepared in two ways: the hollow pieces weremade by sticking torn strips of paper3 in a plaster mould, up to twelve layersof thickness, with paste. The same was done with the contra mould. Whendry, the two parts of the papier-mch piece were sown together with ironthread. A final layer of paper strips was adhered to cover up the fixingthreads. For the solid parts, heavy moulds made of an antimony-lead-tin alloyin a wooden frame were used. First, several layers of paper strips were pastedinto the mould. On top, elastic papier-mch pulp was hammered down intothe details of the mould. This pulp comprised strips of torn paper, starchpaste, hemp fibre, chalk and ground cork blended in proportions that werekept strictly confidential. The pulp was mixed in a sort of stamper beaterdriven by a horse. The top-part of the mould was positioned on top of thebottom-part and placed in a cider press to allow for drying.

The internal support of larger models consisted of an iron construction. Itremains unclear during which production step this construction was fitted intothe papier-mch model. In 1992, X-ray examination of a large male modeland a turkey by Richard Barden (Barden 1999) and a horse leg model(Karlson 1998) revealed the inner construction.

For special effects, imitating e.g. lenses, lung alveoli and wings, othermaterials such as glass bulbs, lichen (moss), and transparent membranes wereapplied. The large arteries were added as braids consisting of ferrous wiresthat branched out to thin arteries and veins, and were tapped into position

with iron nails. To cover the iron veins, hemp and coloured paper strips werewrapped around.

In the next step, the models were delicately painted to give the illusion of

skin, flesh and muscles. While the film shows the use of an ordinary paint,probably alkyd based, the sources mention the original use of pigmentedRussian fish glue. A final varnish layer was applied. After 1917 however,wood varnish was used instead of Russian fish glue according to Barral 2.Mulder carried pigment analysis out applying SEM EDX. The resultshowever are inconclusive (Mulder 1981).

Removable pieces were kept in place by a system of straight and curvedferrous pins and copper-alloy sleeves, or ferrous eyes. Smaller parts werefastened with copper hooks and eyes. Hinges were made of two ferrous eyeslocked to each other.

Finally, little printed hands and corresponding numbers were pasted ontothe model. Directions for dissecting in correct order were provided througha printed Tableau Synoptic. Most synoptic tables were dated, listed the name

of each piece and included numbers and letters to specify the anatomic accuratenomenclature4. After quality control, the models though unfortunately notall were signed and dated with pen and brown ink. It is remarkable thatavailable information on signatures to aid dating or authentication is negligible.

Condition and conservation of Auzoux models

Auzoux writes in ca. 1850: Il resulte des renseignements qui nous ont tcommuniques, queaprs un sejour de plus de vingt ans Cayenne, lle deCuba, Calcutta, pays dans lesquels le climat et les insectes sont une cause deplus active destruction, ces prparations nont encore prouver aucune altration(Pain 1991). Apparently the models endured a period of twenty years rather

well, but keeping a pristine condition for 150 years of extensive use and severeenvironmental changes was rather unrealistic as Mulder states (Mulder 1992).Beth Richwine and Richard Barden from NMAH carried out the conservationof two models in 1999 (Barden 1999). The conservation included surfacecleaning applying distilled water (room temperature or ice cold) and saliva,


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consolidation of flaking paint-layers with water, gelatine or hide glue,revarnishing with 12.5 per cent solution of Soluvar Matte Picturer Varnish inpetroleum benzine and returning of detached pieces with hide glue.

To outline a conservation strategy for the Boerhaave collection of Auzouxmodels, several questions remained unanswered. First, the general condition

of the collection had to be verified. For this purpose, the models needed tobe dissected and re-assembled afterwards. In order to indicate if certaindecay patterns were related to different production periods, dating themodels was essential. The causes of the extensive flaking of the exterior paintlayers needed to be identified requiring identification of applied materials andlocalization of the layer separation.

Experimental

More than 100 Auzoux models, including the entire Boerhaave collection of73 models, ca. 20 models owned by other Dutch institutes and 10 modelsfrom the NMAH collection were assessed in normal light. Special attention

was paid to signatures and dates.Samples for microscopic analysis were taken from two models: three samples

of a turkey (1856, 2 exterior, 1 interior sample) and three samples of a sea bream(nd). The samples were studied under a stereomicroscope. Layer characterization

was done on cross-sections (embedding in Polypolpolyester resin, grinding onMicro-mesh silicon-carbon paper) on a Zeiss Axioplan 2 microscope withincident normal light (up to 1000 magnification) and UV (Zeiss filter set UVH365 with excitation BP 365/12, beam splitter FT 395 and emission LP 397).

Present binding media and varnish were determined with a

Thermo Quest

8000top Gas Chromatograph (GC)/Voyager Mass Spectrometer (MS) by

applying two methods: one specific for proteins, and one for oils and resins.For protein identification, samples were hydrolysed; amino acids werederivatized to N(O,S)-ethoxy-carbonyl methyl esters, separated on a SPB 50column and identified by MS. Oils, resins and waxes were analysed by thermallyassisted hydrolysis and methylation Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry(THM-GC-MS) in combination with Curie Point pyrolysis (GSG Curie pointpyrolyser). The separated components were identified by MS.

DNA-analysis was carried out to verify whether ordinary fish glue or high-quality sturgeon glue were used as binding media and as varnish. Twosamples (ca. 7.5 mg) were taken from the external painting layers of thefemale models left breast (1856), two references of sturgeon glue and onereference of fish glue containing ureum5. DNA extraction was carried out

according to a standard technique developed for ancient DNA analysis(Rohland and Hofreiter 2007). The extracts (2 l) were analyzed withPolymerization-Chain Reaction (PCR) with specific primers: AcCoIF,

AcCoIR, Tel16SF and Tel16SR. Amplifications were done on a MJ Thermocycler starting with a 9 min. activation step at 94 C, followed by 55 cycles of94 C for 20 s, 55 C for 20 s, and 72 C for 20 s. The program ended witha 72 C step for 5 min. and kept at 4 C after the program ended.

Results

Visual investigation of the Boerhaave collection verified that only 13 modelscontain a signature with a date. Close examination revealed a noteworthy

change after Auzoux decease in 1880. While the signatures before 1880 readAuzoux doct. fecit anno 18.. (Figure 4), between 1880 and at least 19146 theyread Anatomie Clastique du doct. Auzoux 18 (Figure 5). To date theremaining models, the synoptic tables were expected to be revealing sincethey specified a year and described the depicted anatomical details of themodel. One of the three eye models of the collection contained a signature



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Figure 4. Signed and dated models made before 1880, signed with: Auzoux doct. fecit anno dato

(a) large male, 1843, Universiteitmuseum, Groningen (NL), Auzoux facultatis medecinae parisiensis doctor fecit anno 1843;

(b) ear, 1844, Boerhaave Museum Leiden (NL);

(c) eye, 1849, Universiteitmuseum Utrecht (NL);

(d) female, 1852, Boerhaave Museum Leiden (NL);

(e) small male, 1852, American History Museum Washington (USA);

(f ) male, 1856, Anatomisch Museum Leiden (NL);

(g) cross-section eye, 1856, American History Museum Washington (USA);

(h) turkey, 1856, Boerhaave Museum Leiden (NL);

(i) eye, 1858, Boerhaave Museum Leiden (NL);(j) eye, 186?, Boerhaave Museum Leiden (NL);

(k) eye, 1870, Boerhaave Museum Leiden (NL);

(l) male, 1873?, Muse de lEcorch dAnatomie Le Neubourg (FR)

Figure 5. Dated models made after 1880, signed with: Anatomie clastique du Dr Auzoux

(a) ear, 1882, Anatomisch Museum Leiden (NL);

(b) eye, 1882, Anatomisch Museum Leiden (NL);

(c) male pelvis, 1887, Boerhaave Museum Leiden (NL);

(d) manatee hart, 1887, Boerhaave Museum Leiden (NL);

(e) brains, 1888, American History Museum Washington (USA);(f ) silkworm, 1892, American History Museum Washington (USA);

(g) male, 1894, Muse de lEcorch dAnatomie Le Neubourg (FR);

(h) fungi, 1914, Victoria Museum, Melbourne (AUS)


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with an indecipherable date, while the other two were signed and dated.(Figure 6) Only one original synoptic table of an eye from 1863 is present inthe Boerhaave collection (Auzoux 1863). It indicated five differentmicroscopic layers, only present at the undecipherable dated eye model,suggesting that eye and table belong together. Comparative studies prove to

be an interesting approach for dating the models, as could chronological dataon the use of materials be. It became apparent that the colour scheme of themodels gradually changed to less transparent and more opaque, indicative ofa change of detailing the materials.

Microscopic analysis of cross sections revealed a characteristic multi-layerstructure of the samples: (1) papier-mch, (2) a thin layer of covering paper,(3) one ground layer, (4) a transparent coating on top of the ground layer,(5) superimposing, medium-rich paint layers of varying thickness, and (6) varnishlayer(s) with ingrained dirt on top (Figure 7).

Some cross sections showed more than 10 paint layers, consisting ofpigments sparsely mixed within the binding media, providing a deep,translucent colour impression. Pigments were not identified with exception ofzinc white, the presence of which was proved in the ground and paint layers

due to its characteristic fluorescence.Binding media analysis confirmed the use of a protein. Further DNA-

analysis verifying if fish was indeed the protein source proved to be notsuccessful. The DNA in the protein adhesive was already too degraded eitherduring preparation or natural ageing (e.g. UV or light), the sample size wastoo small, the samples were contaminated or finally, the protein source wasno fish, but for instance cattle. No non-proteinous material like shellac ornatural resin was found by GC-MS analysis.

Condition

A comparison between models present in the NMAH and the Boerhaave

museum proved to be interesting especially for models present in bothcollections (e.g. turkey, silkworm and one embryology model). The surfacesof the Boerhaave models were in a worse condition.

Visual assessment of the Boerhaave collection revealed the following condition:Parts were missing just at a few models: the female model lost some fingers

and toes, the lungs and even her heart. The turkey lost wings- and neck-partsdue to degraded membranes. Also, parts of the embryology models weremissing: parts of the ovulae had broken off. Large inner parts of the turkey

were instable by loss of core material due to insect damage.Parts of 17 models were distorted, often caused by bending of the inner

iron-structure or by corrosion of wires causing the papier-mch to break.For instance: closing the eye models was impossible because of displacementof hinges; breaking and turning of ferrous wires had caused complete disarray

of silkmoth-feelers.All 73 models were covered with dirt ingrained dirt on the exterior,

surface dirt on the interior.On 40 models extensive flaking occurred. The exterior parts show different

patterns of flaking. Flakes differ in size, extent and shape, but consistently showcupping, a damage whereby individual flakes are attached in the middle ofthe substrate and are separated by cracks with uplifting edges. The layerseparation is located in different interfaces: (1) papier-mch; (2) ground layer;(3) between paint and varnish layer (Figure 7). Where relatively thick layers werepresent in the cross sections, pronounced cupping occurred, implying acorrelation between thickness and flake formation.

Corrosion of the ferrous parts was noticeable on the external and also on

the internal sides of all models. No deterioration was found caused bycorrosion of the iron inner structure. Strands simulating the veins and arteriesshowed corrosion that broke through the flax and paper wrappers andmigrated to the papier-mch core forming brown brittle spots.

Only one prior conservation action was noticeable: on the snail a newvarnish layer was added.

Figure 6. Three signed and dated eye-modelsin a row: 1858, 1870 and 1863, BoerhaaveMuseum, Leiden(NL), the eye of 1858disclosed

Figure 7. (a) Sample of sea bream showing acharacteristic layer structure. Bright field,magnification: 100x and (b) UV-fluorescence; microscopic magnification:

200x long wave UVblue, 365 nm. Arrow:beginning separation between the paintlayers



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Conservation treatment

Surface cleaningwas determined by the thickness of paint layers. Thin flakesand few ingrained dirt were cleaned and polished with an eraser gum (Pentel,zer4-1) containing calcium carbonate. A glass fibre pen was used on thickflakes. Using iced demi-water as suggested by Barden (Barden 1999) to delayswelling of the binding media during cleaning proved to be effective.

Corroded iron wires (e.g. blood vessels) were treated with calcium phytate,a chelating agent effective for iron ions. Spot tests for iron ions (Batophenan-throline indicator paper) confirmed a decreased amount of soluble iron(II)ions. The treated areas were coated with Paraloid B-72, 10% w/v in ethanol.

Re-adhering of flakes depended mainly on the size and thickness of flakesand the separation interface. Preliminary tests showed that application ofseveral adhesives and application techniques was required for an optimalresult. The smallest flakes were humidified, covered with silicone paper andgently pressed with a Teflon spatula. Smaller flakes were consolidated withfish gelatine (3 per cent), larger flakes with Evacon R. Large but thin flakes

were re-adhered with sturgeon glue. The thickest flakes were secured with

pieces of BEVA film applied with a hot spatula at 120 C. On the femalemodel the flaking was consolidated with a mix of Evacon R andmethylcellulose7. It was of primary concern that the flakes dried thoroughlyunder heavy weights of flexible lead-bags. Edges of flakes were coated withcoloured cellulose-fibre paste8to prevent lifting.

Surface defects, due to insect damage or lost flakes, were filled withcellulose-fibre paste.

Missing parts gave an impression contrary to the purpose of anatomicalmodels. Disturbingly lacking elements were reconstructed. Different materialsrequired individual solutions. Missing papier-mch parts were reconstructedby modelling cellulose-fibre paste around a ferrous wire (female model,fingers). To reconstruct missing membranes, several translucent materials

were tested: parchment, alum tanned gut, placenta, and peritoneum. Theperitoneum of a cow, prepared with potash by a parchment specialist andstretched to dry, gave the best result.

The feelers of the silk moth were in complete disorder. A strand offerrous treads branching out in multiple little feeler-ends, were all wrapped inpainted hemp. 25 per cent of the metal cores was broken. A curled steel wire(from the core of a guitar string) pasted between Japanese paper (Kozo16 gr/m2) was used as a splint to connect the broken feeler-ends and restoredits elasticity. (Figure 8)

Large areas of lost paint posed a dilemma that depended on theperspective taken: keeping the model authentic or improving the reading ofanatomical functions by retouching. The collection keeper decided for thelatter. Paraloid B-72 was used as interface between old and new pigment

layers. Re-creating the effect of multi-layered paint with just one layer waschallenging. Watercolours (Aquarel, Winsor and Newton) were applied with abrush in a crosshatching technique, leaving the edge of the flake untouched,creating a pleasant shimmering effect. To reduce the susceptibility toenvironmental changes, most of the models were coated with ParaloidB-72 (5 per cent w/v in ethanol) applied with brush.

Conclusion

Conservation of the severely damaged Auzoux models of the Boerhaavecollection required an interdisciplinary co-operation with creative solutions.Research into the cultural history and material-technical composition of themodels allowed for a better understanding of the degradation pattern.However, further studies are required in the archives of Paris, Caen and Saint-

Aubin dEcrosville to develop a valid reference instrument to be able to datethe models before intervention. Systematic data on the material compositionare relevant to better understand the degradation patterns and define anappropriate conservation strategy.

Figure 8. The male silkmoth before andafter treatment


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Acknowledgements

We would like to thank Dr G Veeneman, former director of MuseumBoerhaave for providing the opportunity to carry out the project. We want toexpress our sincere thanks to Docteur Francois Dubosc (Muse deLanatomie, Le Neubourg, France), Kees Grooss and Paul Steenhorst(Boerhaave Museum) for providing relevant information. We are thankful toKlaas Vrieling and Marcel Eurlings (DNA Marker Point, University of Leiden),to Henk van Keulen (ICN, Amsterdam), to Verena Mller (paintingconservator, Restauratieatelier Amsterdam), Z H de Groot (parchmentspecialist, Rotterdam), Herre de Vries, Hilde Schalkx and Eliza Jacobi(Opleiding Restauratoren, Amsterdam) for their collegial support. Above all,

we want to thank Emanuela Giaccone (Mooie Boeken, Amsterdam). Withher skillful hands the quality of the models was regained.

Notes

1 The website of the NMAH http://americanhistory.si.edu contains an incomplete

list of collections hosting Auzoux-models.2 The film is on show in the Muse de lEcorch dAnatomie in Le Neubourg (FR).

The technical note is found in Pain 1991, p. 170175, Grob 2004, p. 109111.3 The last paper that was used in Saint-Aubin in 1986 was brown-bag paper, long

fibred, normal glued, ca. 120 gr/m, pH = 5.4.4 Davis 1975, p. 276, note 19, provides a list of synoptic tables and catalogues.5 Sturgeon glue: Kremer Pigmente, Aichstetten/Allgu, (DE); Fa. Dick, Metten,

(DE); Fish glue: Fa. Dugay, Paris (FR).6 Signature on Fungi-model by courtesy of Georgia Harvey, Victoria Museum of

Melbourne, Australia.7 Evacon R: non-plasticized ethylene-vinyl acetate copolymer; methylcellulose DP

2000: 5% in demi-water, 1:1.

8 Cellulose-fibre paste: pure cellulose fibres, Evacon R and 5% w/v Klucel G inethanol, mineral pigments.

References

Auzoux, L Th J. 1858. Leons lmentaires danatomie et de physiologie humaine et compare,2th ed., Paris.

Auzoux, Dr. 1863. Tableau Synoptique de loeil complet, Paris.Barden, R. 1999. Conservation Report, http://americanhistory.si.edu/anatomy/

preservation/nma03_preser_ct_1.html, accessed 10 December 2007.Davis, A B. 1975. Louis Thomas Jerme Auzoux and the papier-mch anatomical

model, Rivista di Storia delle Scienze Mediche e Naturali. Review of the History of theSciences Medical and Natural, 20, 257279.

Grob, B W J. 2004. The anatomical models of Dr. Louis Auzoux, a Descriptive Catalogue,Museum Boerhaave, Leiden, Netherlands, 109151.

ICN 2004, Report 3092: Papier-Mch anatomical models (Fish, Turkey) by Dr. Auzoux(ca.1850--1900), Museum Boerhaave Leiden, Amsterdam, Netherlands.

Karlson, O. 1998. Ein Pappmach-Pferd aus Halle, Restauro, 2, MrzApril, 102107.Mulder, W J. 1981. De Anatomie Clastique van Dr. L T J Auzoux, Tijdschrift voor de

geschiedenis der geneeskunde, natuurwetenschappen, wiskunde en techniek, 4, 3, 133143.Mulder, W J. 1992. L Th J Auzouxs models used for the dissemination of anatomic

knowledge,Actes du 6e colloque des conservateurs des muses dhistoire des sciences mdicales,Leiden, Netherlands 129136.

Pain, D. 1991. Lanatomie clastique, une affaire normande au XIXme siecle, These pourlobtention du grade de docteur en mdecin, Universit de Caen, France.

Rohland, N, Michael Hofreiter 2007. Comparison and optimization of ancient DNAextraction, BioTechniques42(3) 343352.


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