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Espelunc@digitalÓrgano Oficial de la Sociedad Espeleológica de Cuba1

No. 6. Julio, 2007, Ciudad de La Habana, Cuba

Apartado 6219, CP. 10600, Habana 6, Ciudad de La Habana, Cuba e-mail: [email protected]

www.sec1940.galeon.com

Editor: L.F. Molerio León

SELF PURIFICATION CAPABILITY

LCPHE HEEE MNGE CEEE 1 P2 C3 M

o.6, Julio, 2007, Ciudad de La Habana, Cuba 1

OF UNDERGROUND WATER COURSES IN THE HUMID TROPICS:

RESULTS OF A TRACING EXPERIMENT AT THE GRAN CAVERNA DE SANTO TOMÁS, CUBA2,3

.F. Molerio León ESIGMA, S.A., .O. Box 6219, CP 10600, abana 6, Ciudad de La Habana, Cuba mail: [email protected]

. Farfán González scuela Nacional de Espeleología, l Moncada, Viñales, Pinar del Río, Cuba -mail: [email protected]

. Parise ational Research Council, IRPI, Bari, Italy

Nota del Editor: Entre el 15 y el 20 de Abril del 2007 se celebró en Viena, Austria, la Asamblea General Anual de la Unión Europea de Geociencias (EGU, por sus siglas en ingles). Tres ponencias cubanas de miembros de la Sociedad Espeleológica de Cuba fueron presentadas a ese evento. Dos de ellas en la Comisión NH8.03 Peligros naturales y antrópicos en areas cársicas y una en la Comisión HS.11 Acuíferos cársicos y fisurados. Los resúmenes de los tres trabajos fueron publicados en los Geophysical Research Abstracts, Vol. 9, 01839, 2007. Espelunc@digital se complace en publicar el segundo de ellos.

ruppo Puglia Grotte, Castellana-Grotte (BA), Italy .mail: [email protected]

. Aldana Vilas scuela Nacional de Espeleología, l Moncada, Viñales, Pinar del Río, Cuba -mail: [email protected]

ublicación científica ocasional arbitrada. ISSN en trámite. omisión NH8.03. Natural and anthropogenic hazards in karst areas. Contribución EGU2007-A-01841 anuscrito recibido en Mayo del 2007

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No.6, Julio, 2007, Ciudad de La Haban

Abstract. The Gran Caverna de Santo Tomás, 210 Km West of the City of Havana, capital of Cuba, is the biggest cave system in the country, with almost 47 km of communicated underground galleries and several dozens of non connected caves. The Gran Caverna de Santo Tomás is developed in the Sierra de Quemado where five small superficial basins converge (Santo Tomás, Bolo, Peñate, Arroyo de La Tierra y Los Cerritos) entering the hills through individual caves in the Eastern slope of the calcareous mountains. The town of El Moncada is located upstream these small basins and discharges its untreated wastewaters to the rivers before they reach the underground cave system. Water retention and groundwater velocity and mixing were evaluated after a tracer test conducted by one of the authors of this contribution. Water sampling in several input-output stations allowed the determination of the self –purification degree and the coefficient of oxygen consumption in this unconfined conduit flow system. The ecohydrologycal vulnerability and the anthropogenic hazards to human health of the communities living at the discharge slope of the Sierra de Quemado have been evaluated after this experiment. The hydrological behavior of a system where flash floods linked to heavy and/ or hurricane rains can modify groundwater flow and hence the retention and self – purification capability of the system is also discussed in this paper. INTRODUCTION One of the major concerns in the sustainable management of the karst territory of the Sierra de Quemado (17 km West Viñales y a 140 West of La Habana, Capital of Cuba, Fig. 1) is the water quality at the outlets. This is mainly because upstream the Sierra de Quemado the village El Moncada (population: 1600, Fig. 2) discharges its untreated domestic and agricultural waste waThis water is also untreated used bdomestic and agricultural consumpt

In 1994 a tracer experiment (MOLEunsuspected hydraulic connectionsat the outlet improving the generalknowledge of the system is still uncave system of Cuba: the Gran passages (Fig. 5). The cave systehydrological and environmental stu(Fig. 6). After a more detailed study of the cunderground waters linked to themonitoring was established in the inas well as of the water distributioentering the Sierra via the streamshighlighted because its eventual eNevertheless it was also consisuperimposed dry and well ventilafive entering streams with small or nthe differentiated development of detailed way. Special attention waslinked with oxygen exchange that co

Fig. 1. Location Map of the Sierra de Quemado and the GranCaverna de Santo Tomás.

a, Cuba 2

ters to the surface streams that enter the karst mountain. y the farmers living at the discharge slope of the Sierra for ion.

RIO et al., 1995a, 1995b; MOLERIO 2004, Fig. 3) showed among the rivers entering the Sierra and several springs knowledge of the local hydrology (Fig. 4). Speleological completed but has allowed the discovery of the biggest Caverna de Santo Tomás, with 47 km of connected m has been systematically explored since 1954 but few dies have been carried in it and its surrounding basins

hemical composition and water quality of the surface and Sierra de Quemado (MOLERIO, 1995) a systematic lets and a detailed inventory of the contamination sources n lines was carried out. The poor quality of the waters Santo Tomás and Arroyo de La Tierra was significantly ffects on people’s health and on the underground biota. dered that huge cave development, where several ted cave levels exists, the fast flow circuits that links the o retention in most part of the underground passages and the river and cave biota should be studied in a more then focused to the eventual self purification mechanisms uld take place in the cave system.


No.6, Julio, 2007, Ciudad de La Habana, Cuba

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Fig. 2. El Moncada village (population 1600). Partial view from the Sierra de Quemado (Photo by M. Condis).

Fig. 3. Hydraulic connections established during the 1994 tracer test (shown by black arrows).



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Fig. 4. Hydraulic relations of surface and goundwaters in the part of Sierra de Quemado occupied by the Gran Caverna de Santo Tomás and its associated basins.

Fig. 5. General map of the Gran Caverna de Santo Tomás.



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Fig. 6. The hydrologic structure of the Sierra de Quemado.

The experiment design was based on data derived from the 1994 tracer test, particularly for the mean residence time of waters. pH, temperature, dissolved oxygen was measured in the field with calibrated portable instruments. River discharges were measured during water sampling that also account for major constituents. Water samples were processed for major constituents at the Central Mineral Lab of the Ministry of Basic Industry in La Habana. CONCEPTUAL MODEL The conceptual model of this study was based on the spatial variation of Dissolved Oxygen (DO) of water samples taken at several points within the cave system whose links with contaminant sources were already known (Fig. 7). This model accounts for DO as indirect indicator for water quality (PARSONS, J.E., D.L. THOMAS, R. L. HUFFMAN, 2004; THOUVENOT, M., T.KARVONEN, 2004; LEE, G. FRED, 2003). The theoretical basis for this approach has been early given by MCNEELY et al., (1979). It should be stressed, according to them, that Oxygen is one of the gases that is found dissolved in natural surface waters. It is moderately soluble in water. The amount of dissolved oxygen depends upon temperature, salinity, turbulence –that allows mixing- and atmospheric pressure. The concentration of DO is subject to diurnal and seasonal fluctuations due, in part, to variations of river discharge, photosynthetic activity and temperature. Biodepletion and re-aeration processes also control the DO concentrations.



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Fig. 7. Conceptual model of Dissolved Oxygen depletion reactions (after LEE & JONES-LEE, 2003).

The decomposition of organic wastes and oxidation of inorganic wastes may reduce the DO levels to concentrations of zero or approaching zero. It is known, despite most standards do not establish a critical level for consumption waters that concentrations of less 4 mg/L are not appropriate for most aquatic organisms. The general methodology followed was that described by PREKA & PREKA-LIPOLD (1976). The formulations of this author and of MANCZAK (1966) were used in this study for the degree of self purification (SA) and the Coefficient of Oxygen Consumption (k1(r)) for DO:

( )a

a

ODODbOD

SA−

=100

( )

b

a

ODOD

trk log1

1 =

Where ODa and ODb are the dissolved oxygen concentrations at the inlet (a) and the outlet (b) or any terminal station; t, holds from the time (in days) between measurements and was obtained from the tracer test. Seven stations were selected (Fig. 8), those in italic are referred to cave stations (see Fig. 5):

• Sumidero Santo Tomás • Arroyo La Tierra • Resolladero Santo Tomas • Descarga Río Frío • Represas Hoyo Fanía • Lago Charco Hondo • Lago permanente 2do cauce



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Fig. 8. Surface locations of OD measurements described in this paper

ODEL FORMULATION ters for each of the inputs along with the upstream river flow are

1C1 + Q2C2 = (Q1 + Q2)C

MThe water quality parameinput at the head of each reach and mixed according to the mass balance equation (ADEM, 2001a, 2001b, 2002): Q 3

where:

tream flow (m3

mg/L)

L)

ore complex equations describing variations in downstream constituents can be simplified

emperature, waste loads and stream processes

Q1 = ups /s)Q2 = waste input flow (m3

/s)

C1 = upstream concentration (C2 = waste input concentration (mg/L)C3 = instream mixed concentration (mg/ Mto a more mathematically convenient form using some basic assumptions. If we assume that:

• convection (flow in the river) is unidirectional, that is significant only in the X direction; • diffusion effects are negligible; and • there is no change in streamflow, t

(i.e. steady state prevails) then the following simplified model applies:



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Where: ntration of a substance, eg. dissolved oxygen - mg/L

his equation was developed by Streeter and Phelps (1925) and its solution known as the

rbonaceous oxygen demand - CARBOD and nitrogenous oxygen

• demand, SOD

ion by plants and algae, P

hese processes are expressed in the following equation, which routes dissolved oxygen

c = conceV = Velocity in the x direction – m/s TStreeter-Phelps model. The Streeter-Phelps model accounts for only one sink of oxygen - decomposition of organic matter (BOD) and one source - reaeration- and is applicable to rivers where these are the predominant processes. Author like O'Connor and DiToro in 1970 added terms to the model to account for increases in dissolved oxygen through the process of photosynthesis and decreases in dissolved oxygen through aquatic plant respiration, sludge respiration and carbonaceous and nitrogenous biochemical oxygen demand. The following processes are considered:

• decomposition of cademand - NOD sediment oxygen

• algal and plant respiration, R • photosynthetic oxygen product• atmospheric reaeration, Ka

Tthrough the reach (and therefore through time):

where

order rate constant of CARBOD – day-1-

) - mg/L

t - day

-1

L

'Connor and DiToro solved equation (6) using a Fourier series expansion for the P and R

Kr = firstL = concentration of CARBOD according to equation (3) - mg/L Kn = first order decay rate constant of NOD – day-1

N = concentration of NOD according to equation (4S = average rate of sediment oxygen demand - mg/L R = average rate of algal and plant respiration P = photosynthetic oxygen production rate- mg/L

= first order atmospheric reaeration rate constanKa D(x,t) = dissolved oxygen deficit = (Cs - C) - mg/L Cs = oxygen saturation - mg/L C = oxygen concentration - mg/ Oterms. Their solution is the basis of the DOMOD3 steady state model used in the Kam River 1988 study with the P and R terms assumed to be zero. The photosynthesis and respiration terms (P and R) have been ignored in the equation below which is applied in the Kam R. spreadsheet version.



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where: Kd = Deoxygenation rate constant for CARBOD - day

-1

x/V = distance over velocity, or time of travel to location x . Note that the equation does not vary with time only x (or x/V or travel time). Temperature corrections for the de-oxygenation terms, re-aeration term and SOD will be calculated by the following general equation:

Where: KT = generic reaction rate (1/day) for temperature T K20 = specific reaction rate at 20ºC (1/day) θ = Arrhenius equation temperature constant for each parameter. T = temperature (C)

The following hydraulic relationships are used in the model:

Where: V = velocity, m/s Q = streamflow, m3/s D = river depth, m a, b, c, d, e, f = Leopold-Maddock coefficients with: a + c + e = 1 and b x d x f =1.


No.6, Julio, 2007, C

The units for areal rate terms need some clarification. The S, P and R terms by definition are channel bottom processes conventionally presented in units of gm/m2/day. The relationship to the volumetric term used in the model is as follows for the SOD term, with units shown. S (mg/L/day) = s (gm/m2/day) / Depth (m) The implication of this is that while the SOD rate would remain constant as flow varies, the volumetric S rate varies with depth and must be adjusted for predicting the impact of lower flows as follows: S2 = S1* D1/D2 With subscript 1 referring to the base data and 2 referring to the prediction scenario and D referring to depth (m). From this calculation it can be seen that lowering the flow rate (and thus the depth) magnifies the impact of SOD by the ratio of the depth. The same unit conversions apply to the P and R terms. As stated in the literature, the major consumption of DO in streams occurs through the aerobic chemical and microbial breakdown of long-chained organic molecules into simpler, stable end products.

carbohydrate → CO2 + H2O proteins → amino acids → ammonia → nitrite → nitrate→ sulfate and phosphate

If O2 is exhausted, aerobic decomposition ceases and further breakdown must be accomplished by anaerobic bacteria. A moderately high DO is necessary for the maintenance of healthy aquatic ecosystems. When a large amount of industrial or municipal waste enters the stream, the breakdown of the waste may depletes O2 in the stream. When a waste enters a stream, it becomes completely mixed with stream water after a short distance. The assimilation of oxidizable materials begins to consume O2 and increase O2 deficit. O2 is replenished by reaeration from the atmosphere, the rate of which depends mainly on the O2 deficit, the width of the stream, turbulence, and water temperature. The balance between O2 consumption and replenishment leads to a profile of net O2 deficit, which shows characteristic dissolved-oxygen sag (Figs. 9-11). The profile of O2 deficit is estimated by the Streeter-Phelps equation (Fig. 12); Where D: O2 deficit of theDi: initial O2 defick : rate constant oL : initial BOD of tr : reaeration ratet : time from initia

iudad de La Habana, Cuba 10

stream [mg/L] it of the waste mixture [mg/L] f O2 consumption [day-1] he waste mixture [mg/L] constant [day-1] l mixing [day]



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Fig. 9. Disolved oxygen sag.

Fig. 10. Typical DO behavior.



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Fig. 11. Evolution of DO and nutrients.

Fig. 12. Streeter and Phelps equation terms.

The word “initial” indicates the time when the waste is completely mixed with stream water. The initial waste mixture may have significant O2 deficit. The rate of O2 consumption per unit BOD is dependent on the type of waste. Many agricultural processes release wastes that can be rapidly oxidized. In contrast, pulp wastes are assimilated slowly. Therefore, the rate constant k depends on the type of materials in the waste. The constant r represents how fast O2 is being replenished. Both k and r are dependent on water temperature (BENOIT, 2001). Assuming complete and instantaneous mixing,

Lo = initial BOD of the mixture of river and wastewater (mg/L)



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Lr = ultimate BOD of the river just upstream of the point of discharge (mg/L) Lw = ultimate BOD of the wastewater (mg/L) Qr = volumetric flow rate of the river just upstream of the discharge point (m3/s) Qw = volumetric flow rate of wastewater (m3/s) DO = initial oxygen deficit of the mixture of river and wastewater DOs = saturated value of DO in water at the temperature of the river DOw = DO in the wastewater DOr = DO in the river just upstream of the discharge point According to USEPA (2001) the simulation of DO dynamics is based on the oxygen deficit, which is the difference between saturation and actual conditons. The following equation was used to calculate DO at saturation:

Where T is temperature in degrees Kelvin, or 273.15 + T °C. The following equation was used to simulate DO dynamics:

Where: D = DO deficit leaving a given segment D0 = DO deficit entering a given segment Ka = reaeration rate L0 = iron concentration entering a given stream segment Kr = Kd (decay) + Ks (settling) rates x = length of stream segment u = flow velocity Similarly to the dynamics of the iron loss equation, a longer distance, slower flow velocity, increased iron floc settling rate, or increased iron decay rate would increase the oxygen deficit, as would a lower reaeration rate. Reaction rates were adjusted for temperature using the following equation:

Where 2 = 1.024 for reaeration and 1.047 for decay and settling. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Table 1 shows part of the data input used in this paper. Fig. 13 shows the Schoeller diagram for these major constituents. For location references please refer to Figs. 4 and 8.



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Table 1. Average major constituents, nutrients and dissolved oxygen (in mg/L). Hydrological

role Locations HCO3 Cl SO4 Ca Mg Na K NH4 NO2 NO3 TDS DO Sumidero

Santo Tomás 108 8 13 28.2 2.6 6.5 1.6 0.35 <0.03 <10 152 4.89 INLETS

Arroyo La Tierra 221 12 10 30.0 5.5 8.9 13.1 15.5 <0.03 <10 267 0 Descarga Río Frio 167 8 12 46.0 3.9 6.4 1.4 0.38 <0.03 <10 229 7.9

OUTLETS

Resolladero Santo Tomás 108 8 10 24.9 3.2 6.0 1.3 0.31 <0.03 <10 146 7.9 Lago permanente 2do cauce

114 6 10 32.0 5.2 2.5 1.0 <0.25 <0.03 10.9 161 1.43 Represas Hoyo Fanía

152 8 10 42.1 4.2 4.1 2.3 <0.25 <0.03 <10 208 3.8

CAVE STATIONS

Lago Charco Hondo

36 7 10 5.7 2.0 1.7 4.0 <0.25 0.125 <10 53.7 3.85 Fig. 13. Schoeller diagram for major constituents of waters tested in this paper.

Gráfico de Schoeller

1

10

100

1000

HCO3 Cl- SO42- Ca Mg Na K

mg/

L

2do CauceRepresa- FaníaCharco HondoSumidero S.TomasRío FrioResolladeroLa Tierra



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Fig. 14. Schoeller diagram for surface waters entering Sierra de Quemado.

Hidroquimica de las aguas de ingreso

0.01

0.1

1

10

HCO3 Cl SO4 Ca Mg Na K

mE

q/L

CerritosS.PeñateA.LaTierBoloSumS.Tom

Point hydrogeochemistry does not differ from the generalization of MOLERIO (1995) (Fig. 14) except for the case of Charco Hondo, not sampled before. Charco Hondo represents a point basically linked to waters entering via infiltration and partially mixed with flooded surface waters of the Santo Tomás river. Na and K concentrations in Arroyo la Tierra were a little higher than historically. Water entering Sierra de Quemado via Arroyo de La Tierra receives the contribution of a a is non persistent, non cumulative toxic substance major pollution source coming from the untreated wastewaters of a Chicken Farm. This point source supplies the highest mineralized surface waters to the system coming primarily from the carbonated products used for cleaning and feeding of the chickens. In addition, the higher NH4 concentrations are recorded in these waters. This dissociated ammonium ion NH4 represents a toxic compound entering the system that threatens freshwater aquatic life and, because of the general alkaline environment it should be more toxic. Arroyo de La Tierra shows the most depleted Dissolved Oxygen values of the sampled stations and, in turn, this allows for the general picture described above. The way and intensity that this behavior affect the cave biota has not been already studied but in the surroundings of the inlet and along the surface water course before entering the cave no aquatic life has been recognized. All streams entering the Sierra the Quemado and stored in the cave lakes like Represas, Charco Hondo and Segundo Cauce shows depleted values of DO. All values are below the standard limit of 4 mg/L DO adopted for the preservation of aquatic life. Charco Hondo and Represas Hoyo de Fanía are basically linked with the Santo Tomás River except in heavy rains were some back flow could be produced due to the interaction of this stream with the runoff of El Bolo stream. But in the conditions described no back flow nor heavy rains took place. Therefore, waters from Santo Tomás river in the line Charco Hondo-



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Represas became more depleted in DO, decreasing in about 1 mg/L. In the large flow path the decomposition of organic matter continues to proceed, depleting Oxygen in the system. In the permanent lake of 2do Cauce, the situation is even worst. Waters mainly stagnant of this lake allowed for particular table conditions of temperature and flow, increasing oxidation of the organic matter and high consumption of oxygen. In fact the lowest values recorded within the cave system were measured at this point. Therefore, this place constitutes a particular ecological notch of depleted high residence time waters. No biota has been ever reported from this lake except after heavy rains producing high floods in the cave. DO values measured at the outlets of Rio Frio and Santo Tomás have shown unexpected results. In fact a recovery in DO values was recorded in both monitoring stations together with practically no changes in the concentration of NH4. Therefore, it seems that re-aeration processes are particularly important close to the outlets of the underground streams. This process should be theoretically controlled by the turbulence of the streams close to the discharge slope of the Sierra de Quemado and the influence of the wide and well-ventilated underground passages in the interface atmosphere-water. The rate of re-aeration in the first model outputs is less than 1 day from the short distance separating Charco Hondo to the Santo Tomás resurgence. CONCLUDING REMARKS

• Two of the five streams entering the Sierra de Quemado conveying into the Gran Caverna de Santo Tomás, the largest cave system in Cuba, are depleted or close to depletion dissolved oxygen.

• Depletion continues to proceed underground for most part of the underground path of te Santo Tomás river and loose close to 1 mg/L . Underground lakes permanent or temporarily linked with this fluvial stream are particularly depleted.

• The Arroyo de La Tierra enters the system with zero dissolved oxygen and high NH4 concentration. Nevertheless, close to the outlet, this stream and the Santo Tomas river recovers enough oxygen to be enriched close to 7 mg/L of DO.

REFERENCES ADEM. ALABAMA DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT (2001a): The ADEM Spreadsheet Water Quality Model. Water Division – Water Quality Branch, Alabama Department of Environmental Management, 24: ADEM. ALABAMA DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT (2001b): Spreadsheets for Water Quality-Based Npdes Permit Calculations. Updated July 2000 by Greg Pelletier, Water Division – Water Quality Branch, Alabama Department of Environmental Management, 19: ADEM. ALABAMA DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT (2002): Water Quality Appendix K Final TMDL Development for Chase Creek / AL06030002-190_01. Alabama Department of Environmental Management Low Dissolved Oxygen/Organic Loading, 28: BENOIT, A.G. (2001): The Streeter and Phelps Equation. ENV 2101 Principles of Environmental Engineering. 2: LEE, G.F. & A. JONES-LEE (2003): Synthesis and Discussion of Findings on the Causes and Factors influencing Low DO in the San Joaquin River Deep Water Ship Channel



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near Stockton, CA: Including 2002 Data. G. Fred Lee & Associates. Conceptual Model of DO Depletion Reactions in the SJR DWSC. Report Submitted to SJR DO TMDL Steering Committee/Technical Advisory Committee and CALFED Bay-Delta Program, March 2003, Californa, 284: MANCZAK, H. (1966): Ocena przelegu procesu samooczisczkoi rzek skanalizowanych na potstame kryterium tlenowego i wynikow bagad rzek Odry. Secz. Nauk Politechn, Wroclaw, Poland (144) MCNEELY, R. N., V. P. NEIMANIS, L. DWYER (1979): Water Quality Sourcebook. A Guide to Water Quality Parameters. Inland Water Dir. , Ottawa, 88 p.

MOLERIO LEÓN, L.F.(1995): Regionalización Hidrogeoquímica de las Aguas Subterráneas en la Sierra de Quemado, Pinar del Río, Cuba. Congr. Internac. LV Aniv. Soc. Espel. Cuba y Primera Reunión Iberoamericana, La Habana,:92-93 MOLERIO LEÓN, L.F. (2004): El enlace absorción-descarga de la Gran Caverna de Santo Tomás: evidencias derivadas de un ensayo con trazadores artificiales. Ing. Hidr. y Ambiental, La Habana, XXV (3): 22-26 MOLERIO LEÓN, L.F.; A. MENÉNDEZ; E. FLORES, C. BUSTAMANTE & M. GUERRA (1995a): Hidrodinámica de los Grandes Sistemas Cavernarios de Cuba Occidental. Congr. Internac. LV Aniv. Soc. Espel. Cuba y Primera Reunión Iberoamericana, La Habana,:88-89 MOLERIO LEÓN, L.F.; C. ALDANA VILAS; E. FLORES VALDÉS; E. ROCAMORA & ANA M. SARDIÑAS (1995b): Resultados de un Ensayo con Trazadores Artificiales en la Gran Caverna de Santo Tomás, Pinar del Río, Cuba. Congr. Internac. LV Aniv. Soc. Espel. Cuba y Primera Reunión Iberoamericana, La Habana,:95 PARSONS, J.E., D.L. THOMAS, R. L. HUFFMAN (2004): Agricultural Non-Point Source Water Quality Models: Their Use And Application, Southern Cooperative Series Bulletin #398, July, 2001 (Updated July, 2004), http://www3.bae.ncsu.edu/Regional-Bulletins/Modeling-Bulletin/modeling-bulletin.pdf. PREKA, N., N. PREKA-LIPOLD (1976): A contribution to study of self – purification capability of underground watercourses. In V. Yevjevich (Ed.): Karst Hydrology and Water Resources. Proc. U.S.-Yugoslavia Symp. Dubrovnik, Vol. 2, Fort Collins, Colo, USA:719-729. THOUVENOT, M., T. KARVONEN (2004): Description of an in-stream water quality model with particular interest in nitrogen cycling. Water Resources Engineering, Helsinki University of Technology, 23:

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Libros y folletos: Acosta, M. (1996): Manual de educación ambiental. Ciudad de La Habana, CIGEA, 320 p. Artículos en publicaciones periódicas y diarios: Frangialli, F. 1999: Preservando el paraíso. Nuestro Planeta, Kenia, 10(3): 21-22. Partes de libros: Rodríguez, S. 1984. Desarrollo sostenible. En: Programas de Medio Ambiente y Desarrollo., v. I. La Habana, Publicaciones ambientales. pp. 71-79. Recursos electrónicos: Apellido del autor, Nombre. “Título del documento” /`tipo de soporte/. Título del documento completo (si procede). Versión o nombre del fichero (si procede). Fecha del documento (y de la última revisión si se accedió por Internet).



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