1. 1ORGANIZA: CONVOCA: APOYAN:

2. 2 3. 3AgradecimientosEn la oportunidad de editar los trabajos del VIII Congreso de la Asociacin de Lingstica SistmicoFuncional que tuviera lugar en Montevideo, entre el 27 y el 29 de setiembre de 2012, queremos agradecerel apoyo recibido, en primer lugar, de los profesores del exterior que ofrecieron siete cursos previossimultneos: Mariana Achugar, Cecilia Colombi, Beverly Derewianka, Gunther Kress, Annabelle Lukin,Estela Moyano, Sue Hood, Michael ODonnell y Len Unsworth. Estos profesores le otorgaron prestigioacadmico al congreso, ofreciendo su trabajo en forma altamente generosa. Agradecemos tambin a susuniversidades por el apoyo que les brindaron para poder participar en este congreso.Agradecemos a los miembros del comit acadmico, quienes realizaron su trabajo con profesionalidad.Vaya tambin nuestra gratitud al apoyo de los integrantes del comit organizativo, que dedicaronmuchsimas horas de su tiempo personal a que el congreso se hiciera realidad. Tambin agradecemos a laprofesora Natalia Gatti, que se integr al comit acadmico en los momentos de ms trabajo. Asimismo,expresamos nuestro reconocimiento a los alumnos del Instituto de Profesores Artigas, de la Universidadde Montevideo y del Centro Regional de Profesores del Centro, que aportaron su trabajo en formavoluntaria y generosa.Hacemos extensivas nuestras gracias al Comit Ejecutivo de ALSFAL, que nos brind su apoyo cuandofue necesario.Tambin queremos hacer llegar nuestro agradecimiento a las instituciones que nos apoyaron de distintasformas. La Universidad de Montevideo apoy la venida de profesores invitados; la embajada de EstadosUnidos, especialmente Vernica Prez Urioste, apoy el congreso invitando a la profesora CeciliaColombi de la Universidad de California-Davis; el Colegio Stella Maris, desde un primer momento secomprometi con el congreso, haciendo posible la presencia del profesor Gunther Kress y definiendola viabilidad del congreso; la Facultad de Ciencias Humanas de la Universidad Catlica del Uruguay,que generosamente nos ofreci su sede para la realizacin del congreso. El Consejo de Formacinen Educacin nos apoy a travs de las instalaciones del Instituto de Perfeccionamiento y EstudiosSuperiores (IPES).Nuestro agradecimiento va tambin para el Diseador Multimedia Gabriel Reyes, quien colabor tambincon los primeros pasos de este congreso dndole con el logo una identidad. Del mismo modo dirigimosnuestras gracias al apoyo, la calidad y el trabajo profesional de Alejandro di Candia y de VicenteLamnaca del Taller de Comunicacin, que edit el programa de los cursos previos al congreso, delcongreso mismo al igual que esta publicacin.Y valga aqu, muy sinceramente y literalmente el lugar comn a todas las pginas de agradecimiento: sintodos estos actores, el VIII Congreso de ALSFAL no hubiera sido posible.Sobre esta publicacinEsta publicacin tiene seis captulos. En el primero se incluyen los trabajos de presentadores que tuvierona cargo conferencias plenarias. Entre el segundo y el sexto captulo se incluyen los trabajos presentadosen sesiones simultneas o coordinadas. Cada captulo corresponde a un eje temtico de los propuestos enel congreso, y dentro de cada captulo los trabajos se encuentran ordenados por orden alfabtico segn elapellido del primer autor. 4. 4ContenidoCaptulo 19CONFERENCIAS PLENARIASAchugar, Mariana10La transmisin intergeneracional del pasado reciente: aprendiendo sobre la dictaduraen la clase de historiaDerewianka, Beverly24A functional grammar for schoolsUnsworth, Len33Persuasive narratives: Point of view and evaluative stance in picture books and animated moviesCaptulo 245PRESENTACIONES SIMULTNEAS SOBRE LENGUAJEY EDUCACINAlvarez Zelmira46Hacia una gramtica pedaggica del ingls. Una mirada discursiva de la voz pasivaAlves de Oliveira Santos, Rosangela; de Figueiredo Souza, Ester Maria 58Prticas De Letramento: O Ensino Da Escrita Nos Anos Iniciais Como Objeto De AnliseBarreto Silva, Paula; de Figueiredo Souza, Ester Maria68Ensino De Lngua Materna: ndices lingustico/discursivos no Projeto Escrevendo o FuturoBollati, Marisel78LSF: Una teora lingstica aplicable a lecto-comprensin en L2Chiappero, Mara Cecilia, Massa, Agustn Abel, Schander, Claudia E.88Bringing Systemic Linguistics into theText Production Classroom de Albuquerque,Thays Keylla; Gurgel de Arajo, Eneida Maria96Gneros discursivos, multimodalidad y enseanza de idiomasde Figueiredo Souza, Ester Maria; de Castro Batista Coelho, Fernanda 105(Per)Cursos Da Formao Docente: Identidade profissional em gneros do discursodos Santos Souza Damaceno,Taysa Mrcia; Lima Cunha, Joo Paulo113Ensino De Lngua Materna E Contradies: Abordagem Sociolgica E Comunicacional Dos Discursos Dos Docentes Em FormaoDurn, Jos124Enseanza de Gramtica Inglesa en el NivelTerciarioEscobar, Susana; Jovenich, Mara Ins134La consigna de escritura en contextos de enseanza de la ciencia escolarGmez, Laura; Olego, Myriam144Gneros narrativos: un acercamiento pedaggico al registro del discurso historiogrficoLuca Natale154La dimensin interpersonal en devoluciones escritas de docentes universitarios: la construccin de rolesy relaciones en los intercambiosMacPherson Garcia de Paiva, Carla164Matrizes de Referncia para o Exame Nacional do Ensino Mdio: uma anlise sistmico-funcionaldas competncias e habilidades em Linguagens Oliva, Mara Beln; Mirallas, Carolina174 5. 5Los procesos verbales como recursos reveladores de la actitud del productor textual de AI en ingls y espaolPasquini, Marina Hayde; Garcia Ferreyra, Emilse; BattellinoValen, Noelia 184Estudio diacrnico del rol evaluativo de las proposiciones relativas en la seccin Introduccin de AI en inglsPizzatti Soares, Jaciara191As atitudes de uma professora de ingls sobre os usos do livro didtico na sala de aula de uma escola pblica brasileiraSan Martn, Mara Gimena; Helale, Gabriela; Faletti, Paula205Elementos valorativos en el discurso de la observacin de clases Soliveres, Mara Amalia214El potencial estructural genrico (PEG) del abstract del artculo de investigacin cientfica de Geografa en inglsStagnaro, Daniela233Negociacin del conocimiento en el artculo de investigacin de economa: exploracin del subsistema de modalizacindel espaol de Argentina y lineamientos para una propuesta didcticaSuid Gatica, Nicole246Desarrollo de habilidades lxicas en la escritura acadmica de estudiantes de la Universidad Alberto Hurtado Tortone, Noelia; Sansiena, Mara Sol; Giordano,Virginia259Estudio contrastivo de los modelos de Swales y Dudley-Evans aplicados a la estructura genrica de los AI: beneficios pedaggicos Captulo 3271Presentaciones simultneas sobre Estudios MultisemiticosAlvarado, Damin272Transitividad e interpretacin. Una aproximacin al estudio del discurso en Facebook.Barragn Gmez, Rafael Alberto283La interaccin entre textos visuales y escritos: bases para un mtodo de anlisis discursivo de las representaciones de los actores del conflicto poltico en la prensa colombianaFaria Carvalho, Flaviane292A representao da identidade nacional em publicidades tursticas brasileiras: um estudo de caso sob a perspectiva da multimodalidadeFlax, Roco303La construccin discursiva de identidades polticas a travs deTwitter. El caso de La Cmpora Garca, Paula Sylvina317De la informacin a la promocin: un anlisis de las guas en laWeb para futuros estudiantes universitarios Oliveria, Kadidja327A Multimodalidade como ponte para o aluno ingressar na iniciao cientfica. Prez, Sara Isabel338Discurso poltico y teora de la valoracin. La construccin de la escena discursiva en los discursosde Cristina Fernndez de Kirchner (2007-2012).Radis Steinmetz, Ernesto Henrique; Pereira da Silva Steinmetz, Edeuzane de Ftima; 348Gottschalg-Duque, CludioCincia da Informao, Arquitetura da Informao e Multimodalidade: algumas relaes tericas. Captulo 4358Presentaciones simultneas sobre Estudios Del Discurso la LSF 6. 6y DistintasTeoras AfinesBernardino Neves, Risalva359Representaes Discursivas Da Greve Dos/As Docentes Do Distrito Federal No Correio BrazilienseBollati, Marisel371SFL and CDA tools to study the representation of Argentina in the mediaBorn, Diego381La reconfiguracin del relato sobre la dictadura militar argentina en los textos escolares Cleide Emlia Faye Pedrosa393Entre Os Sujeitos E As Identidades Individuais: Leitura Crtica Dos Discursos (Virtuais) A Partir DaTeoria Sistmico- Funcional De Maussion, Ana; Neyra,Vanina409Los verbos de decir y sus participantes en artculos de investigacin (AI) y artculos periodsticosFerrari, Mara Carolina; Granato, Luisa Graciana418La metfora lxica en la conversacin coloquial: un estudio desde la LSFForte, Diego L.428Condicionamientos en la produccin de significado individual. Ideologa y emocin en el anlisis sistmico-funcionalGarcia de Oliveira, Simone435As representaes discursivas de lvaro de Campos na traduo dos poemas pessoanos para a Lngua Inglesa: uma anlise Sistmico-Funcional. Germani, Miriam Patricia; Rivas, Luca Ins; Cccaro, Mauro Andrs 446Dominance and politeness in interviews in English. A prosodic approach Grasso, Marina455Aspectos informativos del lenguaje vagoGuerrero Prompto, Luca; Llovell Curia, Magdalena; Luque Colombres,Mara Candelaria 466Anlisis de Introducciones de Artculos de Investigacin en el rea de la Lingstica escritos entre 1950 y 1955 Lima Cunha, Joo Paulo; dos Santos Souza Damaceno,Taysa Mrcia476Contribuies Do Sistema De Avaliatividade Para Abordagem Sociolgica E ComunicacionalDo DiscursoMattos de S, Elisa487The Influence of Corpus Linguistics in ELT: Developments In Learner Corpora in Brazil theLINDSEI-BR Project1 Mirallas, Carolina A.; Rus, Natalia498CDA and SFL Approaches to the Analysis of Obamas Speech on the Killing of Osama Bin LadenSilva do Nascimento, Luana509Advrbios Abordagem FuncionalTavares Pires, Elisa518Crnica De Autoajuda Para Mulheres: Breve Anlise Sistmico-FuncionalCaptulo 5529Presentaciones simultneas sobre Anlisis del Discurso en Distintas reas ProfesionalesAym, Ana530 7. 7Naturaleza y poltica: representaciones en tensin en torno a la inundacin de Santa FeBernardi, A. Luca541Las interjecciones propias frente a los adverbios oracionales: una aproximacin cognitiva a la modalidadde Oliveira, Daniele551Representaes do mundo material: a imagem da mdia hegemnica no discurso da revista Caros AmigosIbaez, Karina M.561La cohesin a travs de elipsis en preguntas parciales: su influencia en las caractersticas de la progresin temtica en la conversacin informalLins Jr, Jos Raymundo F..570Transitividade E(M) Literatura: Insights Sobre Personagens Homoafetivos Masculinos Morales Marcela R. , Moyano, Sara I. 585La repeticin lxica como anclaje de lo nuevoNavarro, Federico596Discurso poltico y redes sociales. El uso de twitter en la campaa presidencial argentina 2011Olave, Giohanny606Qu es lo importante? Pregntele al presidente. Dimensin interpersonal del valorizador importante en el discurso de Juan Manuel SantosPinto Simes, Darcilia Marindir; Ferraz de Assis, Eleone617Estudo do Lxico em Perspectiva Icnico-Funcional (Para o enriquecimento do repertorio discente)Saenz, Cristian626La ley de Radiodifusin en Argentina en la dcada del 90 Un estudio sociodiscursivo Verdessi Hoy, Giovanna Marcella636Representaes lingusticas de participantes na Irmandade de Nossa Senhora do Rosrio dos Pretos da freguesia de So Caetano do ano de 1762: uma abordagem Sistmico-funcionalCaptulo 6646Presentaciones simultneas sobre Diferentes reas De La LSFGiudice, JacquelineViviana; Dillon, MaraVernica647Anlisis de la sentencia judicial como gnero discursivo: recursos discursivos que colaboran en la construccin de la argumentacin Grisola, Mara Beln657La valoracin: recursos para el acercamiento interpersonal en la variedad rioplatense de espaol. Lucero Arra, Graciela; Unger, Lidia; Pascual, Mariana668LaValoracin en la discusin cientfica: entre la Actitud y el Compromiso Graciela Lucero Arra Marinho Fabrcio, Ftima; dos Anjos Pinto, Fabiana682A MetafunoTextual E A Construo Dos Sentidos No Gnero Carta Do LeitorMartins de Souza, Martha Jlia694Chico Mendess case: an investigation into online newspapersSan Martn, Mara Gimena; , Gabriela; Faletti, Paula705Elementos valorativos en el discurso de la observacin de clases Souza de Araujo, Jane Suely706A Metafuno Interpessoal Nas Oraes Principais 8. 8Trebucq, Mara Dolores; Strieder, Mara Silvina; Gonzalez Ruzo, Mara Silvina 716Estudio diacrnico de la estructura retrica de la seccin Resultados y Discusin de artculosde investigacin en ingls 9. 9Captulo 1CONFERENCIAS PLENARIASAchugar, MarianaLa transmisin intergeneracional del pasado reciente: aprendiendo sobre la dictaduraen la clase de historiaDerewianka, BeverlyA functional grammar for schoolsUnsworth, LenPersuasive narratives: Point of view and evaluative stance in picture books and animated movies 10. 10Achugar, MarianaLa transmisin intergeneracional del pasado reciente: aprendiendo sobre la dictaduraen la clase de historia 11. 111La transmisin intergeneracional del pasado reciente:aprendiendo sobre la dictadura en la clase de historiaMariana Achugar machugar@andrew.cmu.eduCarnegie Mellon UniversityResumenEn este trabajo se explora el papel del discurso en la transmisin del pasado reciente en elaula de historia. Las principales preguntas que se plantean son: cmo aprendemos sobremomentos histricos clave en nuestra sociedad pero que no experimentamosdirectamente; cmo se apropian los jvenes del pasado reciente; qu oportunidades paraaprender sobre el pasado reciente brindan las conversaciones en el aula de historia.Compartir algunos ejemplos provenientes de una investigacin etnogrfica realizadadurante el perodo 2010-2011 en tres comunidades del Uruguay para tratar de responderestas preguntas. Se presentarn ejemplos de interacciones el aula para mostrar cmo setransmite el pasado de manera intersubjetiva y se recontextualiza y resignifica el mismoen este proceso. Se argumenta que el aprendizaje del pasado reciente requiere del trabajoactivo de individuos y grupos a travs del tiempo mediante el cual se le asigna un valor yse resignifica el pasado en funcin del presente. Se concluye que el discurso juega unpapel importante en este proceso de aprendizaje, ya que permite materializar el pasadorecontextualizndolo para darle relevancia en el presente.Palabras clave: discurso del aula, pasado reciente, transmisin intergeneracional,desarrollo conceptual, lenguaje acadmicovolver al ndice 12. 122Toda sociedad construye una memoria colectiva de su pasado para poder darle sentido yoperar como grupo en la construccin de un futuro conjunto (Halbawchs, 1992; Ricoeur,2010). Sin embargo, en casos en los que todava existen disputas sobre cmo darlesentido al pasado este proceso se convierte en un espacio de disputa en el mbito pblico.En Uruguay, a casi cuarenta aos del golpe de estado, todava la ltima dictadura siguesiendo tema de discusin y debate poltico1. Estos debates se filtran a espacios pblicoscomo la escuela como espacio de reproduccin cultural. Investigar cmo se transmiten yrepresentan estos perodos sobre los que no hay consenso nos permite identificar loscontenidos y los procesos por los que esta transmisin ocurre. Este tema es importanteporque la transmisin intergeneracional de pasados traumticos afecta la manera en quelas generaciones jvenes construyen su conocimiento histrico e influye en sus actitudesy formas de participacin cvica. A nivel terico nos permite investigar los procesos dereproduccin cultural como trabajo semitico que integra la construccin del significadoen diferentes escalas a travs del tiempo (Lemke, 1993).Este trabajo explora la transmisin intergeneracional de la ltima dictadura en Uruguaypara comprender mejor el papel del discurso en estos procesos y cmo los jvenescontribuyen a la resignificacin del pasado. Cmo le dan sentido los jvenes a la ltimadictadura y a travs de qu procesos discursivos lo hacen? Ac se ofrecen algunasrespuestas preliminares utilizando datos de un proyecto de investigacin etnogrfico dedos aos de duracin realizado en tres comunidades del Uruguay con jvenes de 14-18aos2. Por razones de espacio, ac slo trataremos cmo se transmite el pasado recienteen el contexto educativo formal aunque el proyecto explora el tema tambin en el mbitofamiliar, de pares y en la cultura popular (ver por ejemplo, Achugar en prensa; Achugar,Fernndez & Morales, 2011; Achugar, Fernndez & Morales, en prensa).La transmisin intergeneracional del pasado reciente1La ms reciente polmica en relacin a la dictadura ocurri en febrero 2013 cuando la Corte Suprema deJusticia declar inconstitucional la ley interpretativa de la Ley de Caducidad que haba hecho posiblecontinuar los juicios por crmenes de lesa humanidad cometidos durante la ltima dictadura.2Este proyecto fue financiado con una beca de la John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation.volver al ndice 13. 133La transmisin del pasado es un proceso comunicativo mediado textualmente y apoyadopor una comunidad interpretativa (Welzer 2010, Werscht, 2002). Es decir que latransmisin del pasado requiere de la participacin en la construccin de significado anivel relacional. El trabajo a nivel inter-subjetivo de jvenes y viejos miembros en unacomunidad resulta en la transmisin de lo que una comunidad considera importanterecordar. Es un trabajo semitico que produce una transformacin de los significados quese transmiten y no su mera reproduccin (Koselleck, 2001;Welzer, 2010). La transmisininvolucra la construccin de significados en la interaccin junto con los procesos deestablecer relaciones entre discursos y posturas axiolgicas hacia ellos que permitenconstituir Discursos sobre el pasado. Este proceso dialctico nos permite reconocer lossignificados estables y las maneras en que son continuamente adaptados yrecontextualizados de una generacin a otra. En este trabajo entonces se conceptualiza latransmisin intergeneracional como prcticas discursivas mediante las cuales los actoressociales en interaccin con otros sujetos y objetos a travs del tiempo y el espacio dansentido al pasado. Esto implica considerar el significado como algo relacional ycontextual (Lemke, 1993).El aula de historia como contexto de transmisin del pasado recienteLa transmisin del pasado ocurre en contextos diversos como la familia, la culturapopular y la escuela (Achugar, 2011; Heer, Manoschek, Pollak, Wodak, 2008; Fried,2002; Leinhardt & Gregg, 2002; Wineburg, Mosborg, Porat & Duncan, 2007). Losdiscursos educativos tienen un papel importante en la reproduccin de las creenciascompartidas de la sociedad. Por su impacto en la formacin de creencias de muchagente, los discursos pblicos tienen una influencia primordial, mucho ms significativaque los textos y conversaciones privadas. (van Dijk, 2004:15). Potencialmente elcontexto educativo puede influir en la construccin del pasado de grandes nmeros depersonas.El aula es un dispositivo de creacin de sentido (Vern, 1987) donde mediados por losdiscursos disciplinares de la historia y la memoria social estudiantes y profesoresvolver al ndice 14. 144negocian el/los significado(s) de la dictadura. Es decir que a partir de los relatosdisponibles en el sistema interpretativo de la comunidad profesional de historiadores y delos relatos que circulan en la esfera pblica los aprendices y docentes recontextualizan(Bernstein, 1990) estos discursos construyendo una nueva historia dentro de los lmitesde lo que se considera el discurso histrico como perspectiva disciplinar. Estarecontextualizacin requiere del trabajo activo del docente como mediador para acercar ladistancia y superar las diferencias entre el conocimiento y las prcticas de la disciplina ylas del aprendiz. El objetivo del docente al ensear historia es crear la posibilidad de queel estudiante desarrolle una conceptualizacin nueva del tema que le permita tener unacomprensin ms profunda de ste. Es decir, implica pasar de conceptos cotidianos aconceptos cientficos en trminos Vygotskianos (1986), o de formas de semiosis mscongruentes a ms incongruentes en trminos de Halliday (1993). El desarrollo derecursos semiticos en la tradicin Sistmico Funcional se ha conceptualizado como uncambio desde formas de conocimiento basadas en el sentido comn hacia nuevas formasde conocimiento que son distintivas y propias del conocimiento educativo (Byrnes,2006, p.4).3En este trabajo exploramos cmo se gua el cambio hacia formas deconocimiento distintas en la actividad del trabajo con textos en el aula de historia.A continuacin se analiza un ejemplo del tipo de conversaciones alrededor del tema de ladictadura que se recogieron durante el trabajo etnogrfico con el fin de ilustrar cmo seconstruye la historia a travs de interacciones entre docente y estudiante en el aula dondese empuja el conocimiento hacia formas propias del conocimiento educativo. Esteejemplo proviene de un liceo pblico de la capital donde la docente explica el golpe deestado como algo que emerge de la democracia. Haciendo una conexin con los temastratados anteriormente en clase se plantea una analoga entre el caso particular deUruguay, y lo que ocurri en otros momentos histricos como los regmenes fascistas enEuropa. El caso uruguayo se trata como un problema a resolver utilizando herramientashistricas. La profesora presenta a la clase la teora de un historiador citando su texto yluego les pregunta si creen que puede ser aplicada para explicar el caso uruguayo. Luego3Mi traduccin del orginal: a shift from commonsense ways of knowing to new forms of knowledge thatare distinct and distinctive for educational knowledge (Byrnes, 2006, p.4).volver al ndice 15. 155de recibir algunas respuestas de los estudiantes la profesora les pide que lean otrodocumento, una fuente primaria, el decreto de golpe de estado. En ese momento vuelve areplantear la pregunta sobre si se cumple en este caso lo que dice el historiador sobre elorigen de las dictaduras en las democracias. Les pide que busquen evidencia en el textodel decreto para justificar su respuesta. Al analizar en grupo el significado de la palabradecreto llegan a la conclusin de que este documento s demuestra que la dictadurasurge de la misma democracia porque quien hace el decreto es el Estado. La discusincontinua de manera que todos colaboran desempacando la manera en que se realiz elcambio de un gobierno democrtico a una dictadura analizando lnea por lnea eldocumento del decreto de golpe de estado. En la prxima clase se retoma el temanuevamente.La explicacin de la dictadura emerge a partir de una necesidad identificada por ladocente para explicar qu era un golpe de estado. Eso da pie a una conversacinutilizando un vocabulario tcnico que permite remitir a un tema perteneciente al discursohistrico disciplinar la explicacin poltica del evento. En el ejemplo 1 podemos observarcmo se desarrolla la explicacin colaborativa entre docente y estudiantes.1) La profesora menciona el tema del da. Dice que hoy van a dar el golpe de estado del27 de junio de 1973. Reparte un texto extracto de lvaro Rico (2009) sobre dictadura.(S=estudiante; SS=varios estudiantes; T=profesora)S1: lo ltimo que vimos fue el video del golpeT: Qu era un golpe de estado?S1: tomar el gobierno por la fuerzaT: Cmo se llamaba el presidente de la poca?SS: BordaberryS2: Juan Mara!T: de qu partido era?SS: coloradoLa profesora les pide que anoten en sus cuadernos y escribe en la pizarra:27 de junio de 1973(1971) Juan Mara Bordaberryvolver al ndice 16. 166En este ejemplo se observa un intercambio tpico del aula donde la docente hace unapregunta (de la que ya sabe la respuesta) para buscar la participacin de los estudiantesrevisando lo hecho la clase anterior. Luego, continan el anlisis del documento y paranen la seccin que identifica el quiebre institucional: disolvi las cmaras, en esemomento los estudiantes toman el piso al hacer preguntas a la profesora para poderentender el significado del concepto de golpe de estado y dictadura.El ejemplo 2 muestra la continuacin de la discusin:2) T: disolvi las cmaras AH est dando el golpeS1: qu significa disolver?S6: disolver azcar en el agua, desapareceS7: la disolucin de las cmaras la puede hacer slo el presidente?T: s, la constitucin de 1966 artculo 168 permite disolver las cmarasAc podemos observar cmo la profesora seala prosdicamente mediante el nfasis enah lo que significa el golpe de estado que no aparece explcitamente marcado a travsdel lxico en el texto que estn leyendo. Al hacer la conexin entre el concepto nuevo ytcnico de golpe de estado y lo que aparece en el texto disolvi las cmaras estableceun complejo de relaciones que permite de forma sistemtica y abstracta comprender loque ocurri ms all de los personajes involucrados que fueron identificados en elintercambio del ejemplo1. Es decir, se pasa de lo conocido, familiar y concreto: losactores polticos responsables por el evento a cmo se produce el evento en s de maneralegal. Es decir, qu significa el paso de la democracia a la dictadura en esta explicacinpoltica representa un tipo de abstraccin y argumentacin menos familiar y msincongruente.Luego el estudiante S1 pregunta sobre el significado de una palabra, disolver, que estambin algo familiar que est siendo usado de manera nueva en este caso. El hecho deque el estudiante haya notado este nuevo uso ms tcnico muestra que existe ciertaconciencia de la diferencia entre el concepto congruente de este trmino y el ms tcnicovolver al ndice 17. 177en este caso. La respuesta de S6 por el contrario, nos revela que este estudiante usaconcepto del significado congruente de esta palabra, disolver el azcar, para explicar eluso tcnico como si fuera una metfora. Y luego ofrece otra palabra, desaparece, comocuasi-sinnimo. Ac la mediacin entre lo conocido y lo casi-cientfico la realiza otroestudiante y no la docente. Esto podra considerarse un ejemplo de register meshing(Gibbons, 2004), en el que se pasa de un conocimiento situacional que refiere a unasituacin concreta (comer) a uno ms abstracto pero familiar (desaparecer) y no todavacientfico. Podemos asumir que la docente considera correcta esta interpretacin, ya queno interviene en ese par adyacente.Luego otra estudiante S3 pregunta quin tiene el derecho de llevar a cabo esta accin(disolver las cmaras). Esta pregunta muestra que se est construyendo un nuevoconcepto estableciendo relaciones sistemticas entre una accin y las reglas que regulanla participacin en esta accin y sus actores como algo preciso. La docente respondeapelando a la constitucin como fuente de informacin donde se explica elfuncionamiento de este procedimiento legal diferencindolo as del conocimientocotidiano (disolver el azcar). Al mismo tiempo esta exploracin del significado dedisolver las cmaras permite legitimar la explicacin y provee evidencia histrica paraapoyar el argumento que estn explorando. Es decir el hecho de que disolver las cmarasest en la constitucin hace que el golpe est dentro de lo democrticamente posible: ladictadura surge de la democracia. Vemos en este ejemplo cmo el trabajo explorando elsignificado del texto permite llegar a una comprensin histrica del significado de ladictadura que integra el conocimiento previo de los estudiantes y lo extiende de maneraque les permite desarrollar un concepto ms cientfico del tema. Al mismo tiempopodemos notar que esto permite el desarrollo del lenguaje acadmico de los estudiantesporque extiende su concepcin del significado de una palabra, y resalta el hecho de queuna misma forma pueda tener diferentes significados en diferentes contextos.En el ejemplo 3 podemos ver cmo continua la conversacin sobre el significado delgolpe de estado.volver al ndice 18. 1883) T:Qu ms pasa adems de disolver las cmaras?S7: se prohbe la libertad de expresinT: se limita la libertad de expresinS: no era que podan entrar a tu casa a cualquier hora?La profesora aclara cmo eran los allanamientos: entrar sin tener aviso previo a cualquierhora. Luego escribe en la pizarra lo siguiente: *limitacin de la libertad de expresin y depensamientoT: de qu manera se realizaba esto [sealando lo escrito en la pizarra]?SS: censuraT: censura, clausura de los diariosS: pedan permiso para reunirse, no?T; S. Entonces qu ocurre? Quin gobierna?SS: BordaberryT: Gobierna Bordaberry solo?S6: no, tambin los militaresT: lean el textoS7: el consejo de estadoEn estos intercambios del ejemplo 3 observamos que la pregunta de la docente (Qu mspasa adems de disolver las cmaras?) produce una respuesta de un estudiante S7(prohbe la libertad de expresin) que es corregida y sustituda por un trmino mspreciso (limita la libertad de expresin) mostrando nuevamente una mediacin entre elconocimiento familiar y el uso de vocabulario ms congruente a uno ms cientfico.Luego S hace una pregunta que trae su conocimiento del tema a nivel familiar (referenciaa ancdotas que circulan popularmente) como posible contribucin a la comprensin deltema. La profesora toma el ofrecimiento y le da un nombre tcnico allanamientos.Luego vuelve a guiar a los estudiantes a una interpretacin ms abstracta de los hechospidindoles una explicacin del procedimiento, en la que tienen que desempacar elsignificado de limite de la libertad de expresin y mostrar que entienden qu significadando ejemplos concretos (censura). Este movimiento a lo ms concreto abre el espaciopara que otro estudiante haga una pregunta usando su conocimiento previo del temavolver al ndice 19. 199basado en la memoria social de la dictadura (pedan permiso para reunirse, no?). Alpedir la validacin de la profesora se busca una manera de integrar lo conocido con lonuevo. Este movimiento de ida y vuelta entre lo familiar y lo cientfico permite establecerlas relaciones entre lo conocido y lo nuevo que ayudan a construir un significado msacadmico del tema.En estos ejemplos podemos ver cmo la explicacin (Leinhardt, 1993) que comienzacomo respuesta a una pregunta de la docente y sigue la lnea explicativa de un eventohistrico en el que se identifican actores, propsitos y consecuencias culmina en elanlisis de un documento y la negociacin de las ideas previas de los estudiantes coninformacin brindada por la profesora. Lo que emerge es una narrativa de los eventos,junto con una explicacin histrica desde una perspectiva poltica (tema), la explicacinde una estructura (poderes del gobernante) e implcitamente con una explicacin a nivelde metasistema. Con el uso de ciertas prcticas disciplinares como el anlisis dedocumentos y la exploracin del significado de una explicacin histrica, los estudiantestienen la experiencia de cmo construir significados histricamente a nivel de conceptosy trminos as como de argumentos. Asimismo, la experiencia tratando de aplicar laexplicacin poltica sobre el caso concreto sirve como prctica en maneras de probar unaexplicacin histrica. Lo que claramente se logra en esta instancia es diferenciar la propiaposicin disciplinar de la de la memoria social. Tambin observamos cmo la experienciaprevia, memoria social, sobre el perodo es usada por los estudiantes para interrogar losdocumentos y eso permite que el significado del golpe de estado que se va construyendocolectivamente en la clase con la gua del docente sea una expansin de significado quepermite un conocimiento nuevo.ConclusinLas discusiones en el aula sobre la dictadura son actividades de participacin guiada en laconstruccin del significado del pasado que permiten apropiarse de un concepto y unlenguaje cientfico o disciplinar a travs de la participacin en actividades propias de ladisciplina (i.e. analizar un documento). Esto implica que el proceso de transmisinvolver al ndice 20. 2010cultural del pasado se realiza a travs de la participacin en actividades donde lainteraccin alrededor de un texto para darle significado bajo la gua de un experto permitela participacin en un discurso que todava no es propio (Rogoff, 1995). La gua en estasactividades se refiere a la direccin que ofrece en este caso el docente en cmo interpretary usar los recursos semiticos disponibles en la comunidad para comprender el pasado.La apropiacin guiada se refiere a cmo los individuos cambian su conceptualizacin delfenmeno (en este caso la dictadura) mediante su participacin en estas actividades. Esdecir que la participacin en estos procesos de dar significado al pasado los prepara paraconstruir el significado del pasado en otros momentos o situaciones. Se aprende sobre ladictadura al comunicarse y tratar de darle sentido al pasado en funcin del presente con laayuda de otros.ReferenciasAchugar, M. (in press). La construccin de una conciencia histrica en el aula:explicaciones y conversaciones en torno a la ltima dictadura en el Uruguay actual. EnSamantha Quadrat, Denise Rollemberg y Alessandra Carvalho (eds.) Historia, Memoria yla Enseanza de las dictaduras en el siglo XX. Universidad Federal Fluminense. Ro deJaneiro, Brasil.Achugar, M. (2011) Aproximaciones discursivas a la transmisin intergeneracional delpasado reciente. En Oteiza, T. & Pinto, D. (eds) En (re)construccin: discurso, nacin eidentidad en los manuales escolares (Cap. 1, pp.43-88). Chile: Editorial Cuarto Propio.Achugar, M., Fernndez, A. & Morales, N. (en prensa) Re/constructing the past: howyoung people remember the Uruguayan dictatorship. Discourse & Society.Achugar, M., Fernndez, A. & Morales, N. (2011) (Re)presentando el pasado reciente: laltima dictadura uruguaya en los manuales de historia. Discurso & Sociedad 5(2),196-229.volver al ndice 21. 2111Bernstein, B. (1990) Class Codes and Control 4:The structuring of Pedagogic Discourse.London: Routledge.Byrnes, H. (2006) What kind of resource is language and why does it matter for advancedlanguage learning? En Byrnes, H. (ed.) Advanced Language Learning. The contributionsof Halliday and Vygotsky, pp.1-28. London: Continuum.Fried, G. (2004) The transmission of traumatic memories across generations in Uruguay:the experiences of families of the disappeared, political prisoners, and exiles after the eraof state repression (1973-1984). PhD dissertation. University of California, Los Angeles.Gibbons, P. (2004) Changing the Rules, Changing the Game: A Sociocultural Perspectiveon Second Language Learning in the Classroom. En G. Williams & A. Lukin (eds.) TheDevelopment of Language: Functional Perspectives on Species and Individuals (Chapter9, pp.196-216). London:Continuum.Halbwachs, M. (1992) On collective memory, Lewis Coser (Ed., trans.). Chicago, IL:University of Chicago Press.Halliday, M.A.K. (1993) Towards a language-based theory of learning. Linguistics &Education. 5:93-116.Koselleck, R. (2001) Los estratos del tiempo: estudios sobre la historia. Barcelona:PaidsLeinhardt, G. (1993).Weaving instructional explanations in history. British Journal ofEducational Psychology, 63, 4674.volver al ndice 22. 2212Leinhardt, G., & Gregg, M. (2002). Burning buses, burning crosses: Pre-service teacherssee Civil Rights. En G. Leinhardt, K. Crowley, & K. Knutson (Eds.), Learningconversations in museums (pp. 139-166). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Lemke, J. (1993) Discourse, Dynamics, and Social Change. Cultural Dynamics 6(1):243-275.Rico, A. (2009). Sobre el autoritarismo y el golpe de estado. La dictadura y el dictador.En Demasi, C., Marchesi, A., Markarian, V., Rico, A. and Yaff, J. La dictadura cvicomilitar. Uruguay 1973-1985 (pp.180-246). Montevideo: Ediciones Banda Oriental.Ricoeur, P. (2010). Memoria, Historia y Olvido. Mxico: Fondo de Cultura EconmicaRogoff, B. (1995). Observing sociocultural activity on three planes: Participatoryappropriation, guided participation, and apprenticeship. En J.V. Wertsch, P. del Rio, &A. Alvarez (Eds.), Sociocultural studies of mind (pp. 139-164). Cambridge, UK:Cambridge University Press.Van Dijk, T. A. (2004). Racism, discourse and textbooks. Paper for a symposium onHuman Rights in Textbooks, organized by the History Foundation, Istanbul April 2004.Van Leeuwen, T. (2008). Discourse and Practice: new tools for critical discourseanalysis. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Vern, E. (1987). La semiosis social . Barcelona: Gedisa.Vygotsky, L. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychologicalprocesses. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Welzer, H. (2010). Re-narrations: How pasts change in conversational remembering.Memory Studies 3(10):5-17.volver al ndice 23. 2313Wertsch, J. (2002). Voices of collective remembering. Cambridge, UK: CambridgeUniversity Press.Wineburg, S., Mosborg, S., Porat, D., Duncan, A. (2007). Common Belief and theCultural Currculum: An Intergenerational study of Historical Consciousness. AmericanEducational Reserach Journal, 44(1): 40-76.AgradecimientosQuisiera agradecer especialmente a las tres profesoras y los estudiantes que mepermitieron observar sus clases y documentar su proceso de aprendizaje. Gracias a sugenerosa colaboracin y confianza he podido realizar este trabajo.volver al ndice 24. 24Derewianka, BeverlyA functional grammar for schools 25. 25A functional grammar for schoolsBeverly DerewiankaUniversity of WollongongWhen teaching English as a second or foreign language, grammar has typically beendealt with at the level of the parts of speech or rules for combining words (egsubject-verb agreement). These days, with the emphasis on teaching authenticlanguage in the context of substantial curriculum content, such a model of language isinadequate for the job.What kind of grammar?In educational contexts, there is now a greater concern with how language functionsto construct various kinds of meaning. Hallidays functional grammar, for instance,has been found to provide the kind of relevant, contemporary grammar that supportsstudents literacy and learning (eg Halliday & Matthiessen 2004; Halliday 1993).Rather than focusing excessively on grammar as a set of rules dictating correct usage,functional grammar sees language as a resource for making meaning. It is based onthe functions that language serves in our lives, in particular: The ideational function of language: how we use language to represent andmake sense of our experience of the world Whats happening? Who or whatis involved in the activity? What are the surrounding circumstances (when?where? how?)? along with resources for making connections between ideasand reasoning about our experience. The interpersonal function of language: how we use language to interact withothers asking for information, providing information, requesting services,expressing feelings and opinions, engaging with other perspectives andpossibilities, establishing and maintaining relationships, and taking on variousroles. The textual function of language: how we use language in various modes tocreate texts that are coherent and cohesive, shaping the flow of informationand guiding the reader through the text.Functional grammar sees language as a system of choices. The learners system isbeing constantly elaborated, expanding students meaning-making potential. Thechoices we make from the system vary according to the context: the social purpose for using language (eg describing, recounting, explaining,arguing, narrating, instructing) the field being developed (eg everyday, concrete, specific subject-matterthrough to specialized, abstract and generalized meanings) the tenor (eg the roles being played by those involved in the interaction andthe relationship between them in terms of such factors as age, status,experience, expertise, familiarity, and power)volver al ndice 26. 26 the mode (eg the extent to which the context involves the spontaneous,dynamic, exploratory, face-to-face use of the oral mode through to the morereflective, synoptic, dense use of the written mode).Beyond the context of the individual situation, functional grammar recognizes thatlanguage choices vary according to the broader cultural context the beliefs, values,ideologies and behaviours of the communities that constitute the culture.The following figure illustrates how the various elements of a functional model arerelated.Figure 1: A functional model of languageHow might grammar be taught?Not only has our understanding of language evolved over the past decades, our viewson how to teach grammar have also changed. Typically, traditional grammar wastaught by completing exercises from a textbook. The exercises were unrelated to thestudents actual use of language in context and generally consisted of a series ofinauthentic sentences contrived to illustrate a particular grammatical point. Studentswere required to identify and manipulate the language features in question and/or tocorrect errors in the sentence, as in the following random sample from the internet: Change to the passive voice:The teacher is not going to open the window. Choose the correct adjective or adverb:He .. reads a book. (quick/quickly) Insert the present perfect progressive tense:volver al ndice 27. 27How long you (work) in the garden? Use the third conditional to correct this sentence:If I paid more attention in class, I would have understood the lesson.A functional approach, on the other hand, would typically begin with the teacherselecting a curriculum area as the context for a language focus. A sequence of lessonsmight be developed, for example, around the topic of global warming, following acycle such as in Figure 2.Figure 2: A curriculum cycle (after Rothery in Martin 1999)The teacher might begin by buildingstudents knowledge of the field. Thiscould be done initially in the studentsfirst language (eg through videos,animated diagrams, and class discussion).volver al ndice 28. 28The teacher might then deconstruct amodel text in English with the students,looking at how it is organized into stages,as in Text 1.During the deconstruction phase, theteacher could draw students attention tolanguage features that are characteristicof explanations, such as the use ofcausality (in bold).Text 1Phenomenon The climate is like a big machine driven by the sun. But now ourclimate is changing. The Earth is getting warmer becausepeople are adding greenhouse gases to the atmosphere.ExplanationsequenceGreenhouse gases are caused by burning fossil fuels such as oil,coal and gas. When these fuels are burned, they produce airpollution by emitting carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. Thecarbon dioxide gas traps the suns heat in the Earthsatmosphere. It acts like a greenhouse and so the Earthstemperature gets warmer.Warmer temperatures are causing other changes around theworld, such as melting glaciers and stronger storms. Thesechanges are happening because the Earths air, water, and landare all linked to the climate.General statement The Earths climate has changed before, but this time isdifferent. People are causing these changes, which are biggerand happening faster than any climate changes that modernsociety has ever seen before.The teacher might then lead the class injointly constructing a similar text. Thiscould involve employing a multimodaldiagram as in Figure 3 to provide visualcues to support the class in identifyingthe elements of the explanation system.volver al ndice 29. 29Figure 3: Global warming (Adapted from http://economicconfidential.net/new/features/1253-mitigating-the-impacts-of-global-warming-on-biodiversity)With reference to the diagram, the students could be guided to identify the variousparticipants involved in the phenomenon of global warming and the processes inwhich these participants are engaging:Participant Process ParticipantThe sun emits heatThe atmosphere reflects some heatThe atmosphere absorbs some heatThe earth absorbs some heatSome heat escapesGreenhouses gases capture some heatCoal, gas and oil create a blanket of greenhousegasesThe teacher might then lead the class in jointly constructing an explanation from thesenotes. This would also be an opportunity to refresh students knowledge of thepassive voice (in bold) an important resource in explanation texts:Phenomenon The climate of the Earth is changing because we are producing toomany greenhouse gases.ExplanationsequenceHeat is emitted by the sun. Some heat is reflected by theatmosphere and some heat is absorbed by the atmosphere. Someheat is absorbed by the earth and some heat escapes. But someheat is captured by greenhouse gases. These gases are created byburning fuels such as coal, gas and oil. The greenhouse gasesform a blanket that causes the Earth to become warm. Thisvolver al ndice 30. 30warming is what we call Global Warming, and it is caused by thegreenhouse effect.GeneralstatementThe greenhouse effect is important. Without the greenhouse effect,the earth would not be warm enough for humans to live. But if thegreenhouse effect becomes stronger, it could make the earthwarmer than usual. Even a little extra warming of the earth maycause problems for humans, plants and animals.With more advanced students, we could imagine an activity where students aredebating the issue of global warming. At the level of the cultural context, thelanguage choices will probably reflect a community in which argumentation is highlyvalued as intrinsic to the democratic process and where the social purpose of arguinghas been formalized into the genre of the debate. In this particular situational context,the field being developed by the debaters is concerned with the science of globalwarming and peoples perceptions of the issues. The language choices will thereforeexpress the kinds of happenings involved in global warming (increasing temperature,melting ice, rising sea levels), the kinds of participants in these processes (animate?human? physical? economic? technical? abstract?), and the circumstancessurrounding the activity (how quickly? to what extent? where? why?). The tenor willprobably be relatively formal, with students engaging with their peers in front of anaudience, trying to persuade the adjudicator to their point of view. The languagechoices will therefore involve the use of rhetorical devices such as repetition,intensification, emotive vocabulary, rebuttals, and so on. And while the mode isspoken, it will have features of the written mode in that the students have had time toresearch, make notes and prepare their arguments. The language choices willtherefore reflect certain features of the oral mode (intonation, gesture, facialexpression, pausing, volume, fluency) as well as features of the written mode(resources for structuring the flow of the text, nominalizations, and so on).In the example above, the curriculum context was learning about global warming. Inrelation to this activity, the teacher would have then identified a relevant socialpurpose for using language in this case, a debate on the risks of global warming. Interms of the genre, they would have been guided to reflect on the role of debates inour culture: why do we value debating? in which contexts do we typically finddebates? what is the difference between informal and formal debates? what are thetypical stages of a formal debate? what function does each stage perform? They mightthen have considered other contextual factors such as the need to support their claimsby a sound knowledge of the field of global warming; the need to create a particulartenor by engaging the audience in various ways; and the need to exploit thepossibilities of the mode of delivery by deploying aspects of spoken, written andvisual channels of communication to construct a well-organized, coherent text. Suchmatters would have been discussed with reference to a number of model texts thatstudents and teacher would collaboratively deconstruct.Moving from the level of discourse in context, the teacher might then focus on certainlinguistic features relevant to achieving the task at hand. As they come to grips withthe field of global warming, for example, the teacher might focus their attention onhow to comprehend challenging language such as the following by identifyingvolver al ndice 31. 31chunks of meaning: whats happening? who or what is involved? what are thecircumstances?Glacier retreat and disappearanceSince 1850, mountain glaciers and snow cover have decreased in both thenorthern and southern hemispheres. This widespread decrease in glaciers andice caps has contributed to observed sea level rise. In Latin America, changesin precipitation patterns and the disappearance of glaciers will significantlyaffect water availability for human consumption, agriculture, and energyproduction.Since 1850, mountain glaciersand snow coverhave decreased in both the northern andsouthern hemispheres.for whatperiod?what is involved? whatshappening?where?They might then observe how the written mode tends to transform activities intothings through nominalization. Rather than, for example, saying glaciers havedecreased in the northern and southern hemispheres, we find this widespreaddecrease in glaciers . That is, the process of decreasing has become a thingrepresented by a noun group: the decrease. The circumstance of place (in both thenorthern and southern hemispheres) has become part of the noun group (thiswidespread decrease). Once processes have been changed into things, they can thenenter more efficiently into cause-and-effect relationships:This widespread decrease inglaciers and ice capshas contributed to observed sea level rise.cause effectChanges in precipitationpatterns and thedisappearance of glacierswill significantly affect water availability forhuman consumption,agriculture, and energyproduction.cause effectThis is absolutely typical of the language of academic texts in secondary schoolingand is the cause of many students comprehension difficulties. The students might betaught how to unpack these dense, abstract sentences back to the more spoken modeby changing the nominalizations into doings:Patterns of rainfall are changing. And glaciers are disappearing. This meansthat there will be less water available for humans to drink, for growing cropsand for producing energy.Students might then be encouraged to speculate on whether they should use suchnominalizations in their debating. On the one hand, they are very difficult for theaudience to process when used in the spoken mode. On the other, in terms of tenor,nominalizations tend to sound authoritative, giving the impression that the speakerhas control over the subject-matter.volver al ndice 32. 32Throughout the activity, there would be many opportunities for focused languagework: using modality to create wriggle room; becoming familiar with resources foranticipating and rebutting opposing arguments (however, although, on the otherhand, whereas, even though, conversely); drawing on visual grammar tointerpret maps, graphs and diagrams related to global warming; aligning with theaudience through the use of personal pronouns (we, you); deciding on when andhow to strengthen opinions through the use of graduation (somewhat alarming vsextremely alarming). Such work might be done incidentally at the point of need or itmight be designed-in as a response to identified student problems or in order toextend students beyond their current language use (Hammond and Gibbons 2005).So in Vygotskian terms, the teacher and students are working within the zone ofproximal development, collaboratively engaged in purposeful activity, and targetinggrammatical knowledge and skills that are relevant to completing the tasksuccessfully, focusing not only their form but their function. The students aredeveloping a shared metalanguage, providing tools to reflect on how language worksand to share these reflections with others. Language learning is seen not simply as theacquisition of correct forms, but as an on-going process which involves engaging inever-broadening contexts of use and extending ones meaning-making potential.ConclusionAs we have seen, a functional model sees language as a resource for making variouskinds of meanings, involving choices that are responsive to contextual factors. Itprovides students with tools for investigating how language enables them to expresstheir ideas about their world and to make connections between those ideas; forreflecting on the relationships they are building with others and on how languageshapes their own identity; and for exploring the oral, written and multimodal texts inwhich they engage in their daily lives.Functional grammar is not simply a set of different terms. It is a different way ofthinking about language and learning. It is a rich model of language, reflecting thecomplexity of our lives. Teaching language from a functional perspective usingauthentic texts in the context of regular curriculum tasks is more demanding thansimply assigning decontextualized exercises from a textbook. Considerableprofessional development is needed if teachers are to reach a point where they feelconfident to select and/or modify appropriate texts, identify relevant socialpurposes/genres and grammatical features in relation to classroom activities, assessstudents language needs, answer students questions and develop useful exerciseswhere necessary. Most teachers tend to focus initially on an area of the grammar thatthey feel comfortable with and use that as a starting point, learning along with theirstudents. While teachers often find functional grammar somewhat daunting at first,most studies report a high level of interest on the part of students, who appreciate theopportunity to explore language and how it works (eg Williams 1998). We should not,however, fall into the trap of thinking that a functional approach will automatically beaccepted, understood, interpreted appropriately, and implemented in such a way that itmakes a difference in students learning. There is still a great deal of research to bedone on how teachers and students make sense of the approach and how they use itmost productively.volver al ndice 33. 33Unsworth, LenPersuasive narratives: Point of view and evaluative stance in picture books and animated movies 34. 34Persuasive narratives: Point of view and evaluative stance in picture booksand animated movies.Len Unsworth l.unsworth@griffith.edu.auSchool of Education and Professional StudiesGriffith University, Brisbane, Qld, AustraliaAbstractThis session draws on work on point of view and the intermodal construction of meaning inpicture books, and resources for evaluation in language and images, to discuss forms of invokingjudgment of propriety in images in picture books and animated movies, and to indicate howchoices in the construction of point of view in images in these texts can be deployed to effect thealignment of the audience with the evaluative stance naturalized by the story.Key Words: appraisal, evaluative stance, point of view, focalization, persuasive narratives,picture books, animated movies, visual semiotics, evaluative imagesvolver al ndice 35. 35The persuasive narratives with which this paper is concerned are picture books and animatedfilms that challenge the discourses naturalizing war and violent armed struggle as means toresolve local, national and international conflicts.The Tin-Pot Foreign General and the Old Iron Woman (Briggs, 1984) is a picture book,ostensibly for very young children, which satirizes the political leaders who instigated theFalklands War. It presents the story of the war initially with large brightly coloured imagesrepresenting caricatures of the British prime minister of the time, Margaret Thatcher, and theArgentine dictator, General Galtieri, as a pair of toy metal monsters who send men to fight overa "sad little island" populated by a few shepherds who eat nothing but mutton. Neither theFalkland Islands, the United Kingdom, Argentina, nor their leaders are named in the text. In thesecond phase of the book monochrome pencil sketches accompany a listing of several ways inwhich soldiers (who were "all real men, made of flesh and blood ... not made of Tin Pots orIron") were killed or maimed. The final phase of the book depicts the celebrations following thevictory by the soldiers of the old iron woman, to which the maimed were not invited in case theirappearance detracted from the celebration.Photographs in the Mud (Wolfer & Harrison-Lever, 2005) is set in World War II in 1942 on theisland of New Guinea situated just north of Australia. The picture book tells two parallel stories,one of an Australian soldier, Jack, and the other of a Japanese soldier, Hoshi, leaving their wivesand children to become locked in fierce battle on the infamous Kokoda Track in Papua-NewGuinea. The story depicts the tension between the soldiers sense of duty, their feelings ofalienation from the violence in which they were engaged and their longing to be home with theirfamilies. After inflicting massive injuries on each other, Jack and Hoshi find themselves dyingtogether on the same stretch of muddy track. Without a common language, they communicate bysharing photographs of their loved ones from home. Later, soldiers searching for the dead andwounded find the photographs of the Hoshis Japanese family and Jacks Australian family stucktogether in the mud, and the soldiers were unable to separate the photographs.The animated movie 9-11/9-11 (Chin, 2008) links the 1973 bombing of la Moneda, thePresidential Palace in Chile, and the United States role in the coup against the Allendegovernment, to the terrorist attack on the twin towers of the World Trade Centre in New Yorkexactly 28 years later. The story begins with the parallel early morning waking on that day, ofUS special agent, Mike Smith, in Santiago in 1973, and the young Chilean man, Salvador,twenty-eight years later in New York. Salvador had previously left an unhappy situation withvolver al ndice 36. 36his mother in Santiago and was now living with Julia, Mike Smiths daughter, whom he met as aco-worker in a restaurant at the World Trade Centre. In 2001 Mike Smith works as a crop dusterpilot instructor, living with his wife but estranged from his daughter. The story tracks hisrecollection of meeting Pinochet and training the Chilean pilot, Jorge Montes, who carried outthe la Moneda bombing. Salvador and Julia learn that Julia is pregnant and she takes an extrashift on 11thSeptember 2001 at the restaurant. The movie then depicts the attacks on the twintowers and the Chilean Presidential Palace as parallel events. Mike Smith and Salvador both seethe twin towers attack on television. Julia is killed in the attack. Mike Smiths wife turns todrinking and Mike Smith, grief stricken, disillusioned and desperately depressed, commitssuicide. Salvador, engulfed in overwhelming anger, goes to the US Central Intelligence Agency,ready to do anythingand is welcomed by the CIA agent, Jorge Montes.The evaluative stance taken in these narrative challenges is constructed through attitudinalaspects of language and images. Various types of attitude, strategies for inscribing and invokingthem in language, and linguistic resources for their realization have been described by Martinand White (2005) and others (Hunston & Thompson, 2000) and there has been some preliminaryextrapolation of this work to images (Economou, 2009; Unsworth, forthcoming). In this paperthe focus is on the evaluative aspects of images, specifically strategies in the creation of imagesfor invoking viewers judgement of propriety.A significant influence on the extent to which the audience accepts this evaluative stance is themanner in which the text constructs audience interaction and alignment with characterssupportive of that stance in contrast to characters unsupportive of it. Here we will brieflyconsider the manner in which audience alignment with characters has been influenced throughthe deployment of different options for the construction of point of view in images.Distinguishing the strength of invoking: Images that entail and images that provokeWhile it may be the case that images cannot inscribe judgement of propriety (Martin, 2008,p.124), they can certainly invoke such judgment. It has been proposed that the strategies forinvoking judgement in language (Martin & White, 2005) can be extrapolated to images(Economou, 2009) so that visual metaphors, such as included in political cartoons, provokejudgment; various forms of visual graduation, or intensification of aspects of images, flagjudgement; and sometimes the ideational content of images is sufficient to afford judgement,where there is no indication of overt evaluation. Elsewhere I have discussed this cline in moredetail (Unsworth, forthcoming), but here I want to propose that, among the various forms ofvolver al ndice 37. 37images that provoke judgment, some, including visual metaphors, achieve this more strongly - tothe extent that they entail judgment. The picture books and the animated movie provideexamples illustrating this distinction between images that entail and those that provokejudgement.In the first phase of The Tin-Pot Foreign General the illustrations are caricatures of Galtieri andThatcher with their ships and soldiers as toy ships and toy soldiers. Both Galtieri and Thatcherare enormous, relative to the size of their ships. They are drawn mainly in grey-scale but withmultiple coloured splashes of symbolic attributes. In the case of Galtieri weapons and markers ofrank such as gold braid and comical militaristic accessories such as golden coloured spurs.Thatcher appears as a dominatrix, dressed only in stockings and high heels, and with iron breaststhat open to pour out gold to finance her war, and on another occasion are a pair of twin cannonsfiring at the enemy (the images can be seen in an illustrated reading of the story on Youtube -http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0Rq2tkepYHM, uploaded by SkidRowRadio on Jan 30,2011). The images of this first phase clearly entail evaluation. The outlandish and exaggeratedsize and characteristics of the characters seem to indicate an obvious direction by the artist toevaluate them as preposterously self-important and irresponsibly dangerous.In the 9/11-9/11 movie, perhaps the most powerful persuasive image represents the simultaneousimpact of the aircraft hitting the World Trade Centre tower in New York and the missilepenetrating la Moneda, the Presidential Palace in Chile (Figure 1). This split screen effectproduces a composite symbolic image. The events occurred 28 years apart, but here arerepresented as simultaneous, entailing the judgement of negative propriety, in that the missileattack on the Palace is visually equated with the terrorist attack on the World Trade Centre. Ithink this image is designed to convey the judgement of social sanction in relation to bothattacks, so evaluation is built in, or entailed in the construction of the image.Figure 1. Twin Towers and la Moneda attacks.volver al ndice 38. 38What is clear is that a very significant number of transitions in the movie involve morphs that aresymbolic and entail judgement of propriety. Due to the limitations of space here I will mentionjust one of the most striking such morphs (for a comprehensive discussion of the range ofmorphs see Unsworth (forthcoming)). The morphing of the head of Jorge Montes into that of awolf occurs in the transition from Jorge indicating his pleasure at the power and access to anywoman he desires, which he has achieved by becoming a member of Pinochets secret police inthe 1970s, to Mike Smiths watching a television documentary about wolves on the day ofSeptember 11, 2001 (Figure 2). The morphing of the image of the face of Jorge Montes to that ofa wolfs face certainly communicates negative Judgement: Propriety in relation to the predatoryanimal like pursuit of political and social dominance, which Jorge now embodies. But thequestion is whether this morphing actually inscribes judgement. Is the symbolism of the wolf asa feared predator sufficient that the representation of Jorges head turning into that of a wolf isinscribing judgement? If this proposal were to be pursued, further examples would be needed toconfirm it, however, what does seem very clear is that this morph at least exceptionally stronglyentails negative Judgement: Propriety. Figure 2. Morphing of Jorge Montes The kinds of images discussed above, which entail judgement, can be contrasted with imagesthat provoke judgement. In the opening scenes of the 9/11-9/11 movie for example, there areparallel scenes of Mike Smith and Salvador waking 28 years apart. We see Mike Smithsbedside table with pistol prominent and the card indicating welcome to Santiago in Chile (Figure3). Soon after we see the bedside table for Salvador and Julia with the painting brushes andcigarettes. I suggest that the design of these parallel images goes beyond the notion of ideationaltokens affording evaluation. Their parallel presentation is designed to provoke evaluation, butcannot be said to entail evaluation in the same manner as the symbolic morphs.Figure 3. Example of parallelism in the 9-11/9-11 movie volver al ndice 39. 39In Photographs in the Mud (Wolfer & Harrison-Lever, 2005), there are two distinct types ofimages where the portraits of family members are embedded into the main images of the soldiersfighting. In the first type the embedded portraits are experientially cohesive with the mainimage, such as images of the soldiers children, whom they are thinking about when restingbetween battles. In the second type there is not the same obvious cohesive link to theexperiential content of the battle in the main image as was the case with the other images. In onecase the image depicts many Australian and Japanese soldiers in battle with the multiple imagesof family members embedded at the top, looking on. The role of the embedded photographs inprovoking judgement is given greater impact through personalizing in the image of Jack andHoshi fighting and the images of their parents embedded above them. The greater experientialdisjunction between the embedded and main images shifts the role of the embedded images andrenders the composite images as having more of a symbolic quality, which I believe directs theviewer to evaluation and provokes rather than affords, but does not entail judgement.In the second phase of The Tin-pot Foreign General the images become grey-scale etchingsrepresenting the various forms of death of the soldiers (Some men were shot. Some men weredrowned. Some men were burned alive. Some men were blown to bits.) These illustrationsdepict indistinct images that are recognizable as men, but with no detail of their appearance andno detail of their surroundings. Hence the images could represent soldiers generally and alsoavoid any explicit representation of the horror of their deaths. The images may afford evaluationbut they are so indistinct that it is actually the combination of the one line of text on each facingpage in combination with the images that affords evaluation.Point of view and orientation to evaluative stance in imagesThe concept of point of view recognizes that there is more than one way of looking at the sameevent in a story and that stories seen through the eyes of one character (the focalizing character)privilege certain events and aspects of those events as well as the focalising charactersevaluative perspectives on events. Images can position the viewer to assume different viewingpersonas. One option is to position the viewer as an outside observer, but the viewer can also bepositioned as if s/he were one of the characters in the story, or as if s/he had a visual perspectivethat was not identical with, but was nevertheless similar to that of a character so that the viewersees along with the character (Painter, 2007; Painter, Martin, & Unsworth, in press).Painter and her colleagues identify a number of methods by which viewers can be positioned asif they were one of the characters in the image (Painter, 2007; Painter et al., in press). Onevolver al ndice 40. 40method is by depicting just the part of the body of the focalising character that could be seenfrom that angle only by the focalising character (such as the hands or feet out in front of theunseen body). In the 9/11-9/11 movie we are positioned as Mike Smith when he folds theelection pamphlet that morphs into his orders document (Figure 4). All that is visible on thescreen are Mikes hands holding the papers in such a position that only Mike could see what isdepicted on the screen. Figure 4 Morphing from election pamphlet to secret orders Another method of positioning the viewer as if s/he were one of the characters is achievedthrough the sequence of successive images. In the first image the focalizing character looks outfrom the page/screen gazing directly at the reader, so it is clear that the character is looking atsomething, and what s/he is looking at is depicted in the subsequent image. This has the effect ofpositioning the reader to see the second image from the point of view of the focalizing character.In one scene in the 9/11-9/11 movie we see Salvador in the background looking straight ahead atus and in he foreground we see the face of the African-American youth who has helped him. Inthe next image we see the face of the youth turned to his rear and looking at us, and his armoutstretched and pointing directly at us as viewers. From the position of Salvador in theprevious scene this view could only be from his position, so we are seeing the youth fromSalvadors point of view.It is also possible for the reader to share a characters point of view rather than being positionedas the character. The readers view subsumes that of the character. The reader sees the character(or part of the character) while also seeing what the character sees from that charactersperspective. This is achieved by having the reader view what is depicted along with or overthe shoulder of the focalizing character. The over the shoulder view can be achieved bypositioning the readers point of view as being from slightly to the rear and to one side of thefocalizing character. In the 9/11-9/11 movie we see the back of Salvadors head and his leftshoulder in the foreground and Julia preparing herself for work in the background, so we shareSalvadors point of view.volver al ndice 41. 41In The Tin-Pot Foreign General and Photographs in the Mud we are never positioned as oneof the characters, and there are only a very few images where the point of view is along withthe character. This makes these occasions very significant. In Photographs we are positionedalong with Jack and Hoshi as both lay badly wounded, sharing the photographs of their families.In The Tin-Pot General the two rear view images are somewhat distant, so it is difficult tomaintain that the point of view is along with the characters rather than simply a detachedobserver view. One of these images is a very high angle, slightly rear view image of a maimedreturned soldier watching the victory parade at home with his family. The second is a rear viewof the family at the graveside of a soldier.In the 9/11-9/11 movie it is the distribution of the choices for the construction of different pointsof view that is significant. The point of view is quite frequently that of Salvador or Julia andalso quite frequently along with Salvador or Julia. Julias point of view is often inscribed aswe are positioned with what can only be her view of her hands, but for both characters theconstruction of their point of view inferred through image sequences is important because, asviewers, we experience contact images of them looking directly at us. The result these choicesof interactive meaning (Kress & van Leeuwen, 2001/2006) and point of view is that we arestrongly aligned with Salvador and Julia throughout the sequences of the movie in which theyare involved and hence more sympathetically oriented to the value positions they express.We are less aligned with Mike Smith, the agent of the United States Central Intelligence Agencyin Chile in 1973. The inscribed construction of Mike Smiths point of view occurs only in thecontext of his secret mission when, for example, we see Mikes hands holding the electionpamphlet and his orders document from an angle that could only be his viewpoint. We never seeMikes point of view inferred through a sequence of images, and hence the only occasion in themovie when we have a direct close-up contact image of Mike is when we see his facial reactionto the Twin Towers attack. The construction of the point of view along with Mike Smith occursduring his interview with Pinochet. We never see Mike Smiths point of view or a point of viewalong with Mike Smith in the context of normal life and interaction with his family. Thiscontributes to the depiction of Mike Smith as being alienated from the normal realm of personalhuman relationships and as a character we observe, but with whom we are rarely aligned, andhence we are less likely to be sympathetically oriented to the value positions he embodies.volver al ndice 42. 42ConclusionIn this brief paper it has only been possible to provide limited insight into the nature of imagesand image-language relations that construct judgements of propriety. What has not beendiscussed here are other visual narrative techniques that are crucial in constructing evaluativestance and also in aligning the viewer with the ideological view(s) privileged in the texts. In thecase of the 9/11-9/11 movie (Chin, 2008), for example, a key concern is that terrorist atrocities,including the US supported bombing of la Moneda in Chile in 1973, are perpetuated by peoplewho have become completely bereft of empathy and individual human caring for others, to theextent that they are prepared to do anything to achieve political goals. The characterization ofthe US agent, Mike Smith, is central to the development of this theme. Not only is there nomention of the human trauma caused by his mission in Chile, but also we see him alienated fromhis daughter and detached from his wife and particularly from her suffering following the deathof their daughter. Since the persona of Mike Smith is the narrator, to a very significant extentthe judgements of negative propriety in relation to Mikes character and actions are invokedthrough the nature of the images and their interaction with language.What is also clear, even in this small sample of texts, is that persuasive narratives using differentmedia and depiction styles deploy the resources for constructing evaluative stance in distinctiveways. The picture books, for example, made very limited use of point of view options beyondunmediated observer view, while the movie made extensive use of positioning the viewer alongwith or from a particular characters point of view. Photographs in the Mud tended to useimages that afford or provoke judgement, and while these also occurred in The Tin-Pot ForeignGeneral and 9/11-9/11, these texts made very distinctive use of images that entail judgment,particularly the innovative use of symbolic morphs in the movie. The very fact that imagesappear to invoke but not to inscribe judgements of propriety makes the persuasive contributionof images to evaluative stance very powerful. This underlines the need for much more researchto tease out the basis for the relative strength of evocation of judgement in images and how thisinteracts with strategic choices of point of view for different audiences and different topics.ReferencesBriggs, R. (1984). The tin-pot foreign general and the old iron woman. London: HamishHamilton.Chin, M. (Writer). (2008). 9-11/9-11: indiePix.Economou, D. (2009). Photos in the news: appraisal analysis of visual semiosis and visual-verbal intersemiosis. (PhD doctoral), University of Sydney, Sydney.volver al ndice 43. 43Hunston, S., & Thompson, G. (2000). Evaluation in text:authorial stance and the construction ofdiscourse. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Kress, G., & van Leeuwen, T. (2001/2006). Reading Images: A grammar of visual design (2ed.). London: Routledge.Martin, J. R. (2008). Intermodal Reconciliation: Mates in Arms. In L. Unsworth (Ed.), NewLiteracies and the English Curriculum (pp. 112-148). London/New York: Continuum.Martin, J. R., & White, P. (2005). The Language of Evaluation: Appraisal in English. .London/New York: Palgrave/Macmillan.Painter, C. (2007). Childrens picture book narratives: reading sequences of images In A.McCabe, M. ODonnell & R. Whittaker (Eds.), Advances in Language and Education.London: Continuum.Painter, C., Martin, J. R., & Unsworth, L. (in press). Reading Visual Narratives: Inter-imageAnalysis of Childrens Picture Books. London: Equinox.Unsworth, L. (forthcoming). Persuasive narratives: Evaluative images in picture books andanimated movies.Wolfer, D., & Harrison-Lever, B. (2005). Photographs in the Mud. Freemantle, WesternAustralia: Freemantle Arts Centre Press.volver al ndice 44. 44ReferencesHalliday, M.A.K. (1993). Towards a language-based theory of learning, Linguisticsand Education 5(Z), 93-116..Halliday, M.A.K. & Matthiessen, C.M.I.M. (2004) Introduction to FunctionalGrammar (3rdEdition) London: A Hodder Arnold PublicationHammond, J. & Gibbons, P. (2005) Putting scaffolding to work: The contribution ofscaffolding in articulating ESL education, Prospect Vol. 20, No. 1 AprilMartin, J.R. (1999) Mentoring semogenesis: genre-based literacy pedagogy, in F.Christie (ed.) Pedagogy and the Shaping of Consciousness. Linguistic and SocialProcesses. London and NY: Cassell, pp.123-155.Williams, G. (1998) Grammar as a metasemiotic tool in child literacy development,Proceedings of the Regional Language Centre Conference, Singapore.volver al ndice 45. 45Captulo 2PRESENTACIONES SIMULTNEAS SOBRE LENGUAJEY EDUCACIN 46. 46Alvarez ZelmiraHacia una gramtica pedaggica del ingls. Una mirada discursiva de la voz pasiva 47. 471Hacia una gramtica pedaggica del Ingls. Una mirada discursiva de lavoz pasivaZelmira Alvarez zelmira@copetel.com.arUniversidad Nacional de Mar del Plata, ArgentinaResumenEste trabajo se inserta en la lnea de investigacin del proyecto Fundamentos paradesarrollar una gramtica del texto orientada hacia la enseanza de espaol como lenguasegunda y extranjera (ELSE), radicado en la Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata,Argentina, en el cual se pretenden formular los lineamientos generales de una gramticadiscursiva para la enseanza de ELSE. En este caso, se transfiere la propuesta al caso delingls como lengua segunda/extranjera (ESL) y se focaliza la atencin en la voz pasiva,partiendo de la interdependencia entre gramtica y discurso. En trabajos anterioresabordamos la problemtica que dichas relaciones presentan para ESL en torno altratamiento que la voz pasiva recibe en The Grammar Book. An ESL/EFL Teachers Course(1999) de M. Celce-Murcia y D. Larsen-Freeman, pensada como gramtica pedaggicapara docentes de ingls en programas de formacin y docentes en actividad. En estapresentacin pretendemos partir de la mirada de la lingstica sistmico-funcional (Hallidayy Matthiessen 2004) para explorar relaciones necesarias entre voz pasiva, texto y contexto.A tal fin, se lleva a cabo el anlisis de un corpus conformado por extractos de una variedadde textos producidos en el marco de la postulacin de Barack Obama en la ConvencinNacional Demcrata.Palabras clave: gramtica pedaggica gramtica discursiva voz pasiva formacindocente - enseanza de ingls como L2IntroduccinUna mirada discursivaEs posible sostener que, desde una mirada funcional, la voz pasiva representa una formamarcada, no cannica, de orden oracional, esencialmente usada para defocalizar el agente.Sabemos por otra parte que slo alrededor de un 15% de los casos de pasiva en inglsincluyen explcitamente al agente, el cual, de ser necesario, aparece al final de la oracin.(Shibatani 1985, Thompson 1987). Celce-Murcia y Larsen Freeman (1999) explorandetalladamente los condicionantes semnticos en el uso de la voz pasiva y la inclusinexplcita del agente. Sin embargo, entendemos que desde el punto de vista pragmtico, parapoder dar cuenta de la multi-funcionalidad de la voz pasiva, su contribucin a laorganizacin del discurso y las razones discursivas que la motivan, se hace necesarioabordar su anlisis en el marco del gnero y registro en el que dicho discurso se inscribe, y,volver al ndice 48. 482es en este aspecto, en que confiamos que la gramtica sistmico-funcional puede realizar ungran aporte.Halliday (1970: 161) describe los usos de la voz pasiva de la siguiente manera:[] tema, actor y sujeto modal son idnticos a no ser que haya una buena razn para que no losean. Cuando no lo son, la tendencia en ingls moderno es asociar el tema y el sujeto modal; y estaes la principal razn para usar la pasiva. La pasiva tiene precisamente la funcin de disociar el actorde este complejo, de manera tal que pueda o bien ser puesto en posicin focal al final, o msfrecuentemente, omitido como en (29): (29i) This gazebo was built by Sir Christopher Wren. (29ii)This gazebo is being restored.Est claro que desde una mirada discursiva la pasiva no puede ser considerada como unavariacin sintctica de la voz activa, pero tampoco puede ser tomada slo en funcin de lossignificados proposicionales que genera. Se hace preciso indagar, en cambio, en losfactores discursivos y pragmticos que motivan el uso de la pasiva en distintos gneros yregistros. En tanto, la pasiva es a menudo atribuida aa) el estatus informacional, es decir, informacin dada o nueva, considerando losprincipios orientadores de end-weight, end-focus y preservacin del tpico, entrminos generales para destacar la entidad que ocurre en posicin de pacienteb) la organizacin del discurso, como por ejemplo cuando la continuidad del tpicopara un mejor fluir del discurso se logra mediante la pasivizacin.Thompson (1987) se propone explorar cules son los factores que inciden en la opcinpasiva o activa en ingls. Menciona que la decisin por la pasiva est basada en dosfactores discursivos, uno de los cuales anticipa el uso del agente mientras que el otropropone una pasiva sin agente. Por otra parte, argumenta que la pasiva sin agente es laopcin preferida cuando el no-agente est ms cercano al tema del prrafo que el agente ycuando el no-agente est ms cercano que el agente a un participante de la clusulainmediatamente precedente. Si bien sabemos que distintos estudios muestran similaresresultados que confirman que la pasiva sin agente supera ampliamente el uso de pasiva conagente explcito, entre un 80% (Svartvic 1966), 82 % (Thompson 1987), y un 83% (Givon2001), es necesario conocer cules son las razones discursivas que justifican el uso de vozpasiva con agente explcito en lugar de tomar la opcin neutra, no marcada, que ofrece lavoz activa. Desde una posicin tradicional, Jespersen (1927) proporciona dos razones quefundamentan el uso de pasiva: que el sujeto activo sea desconocido o no pueda serfcilmente enunciado y que el sujeto activo sea auto-evidente y pueda ser fcilmentevolver al ndice 49. 493deducido del contexto. Givon (2001) por su parte expresa que los agentes no explcitospueden ser recuperables en una de dos maneras: mediante inferencia del discursoprecedente o siguiente, o bien a travs del conocimiento pragmtico general, siendo estemismo conocimiento el que puede informarnos acerca de la irrelevancia o vaguedad delagente. Por otra parte, Thompson (1987) distingue entre un agente no enunciado por serconsiderado sin importancia, de otro no enunciado por su carcter de agente no marcadopara esa situacin.Volvemos entonces a la pregunta: cuando hay claramente un agente: por qu elegir laopcin pasiva ms marcada? De acuerdo a Thompson (1987) en trminos generales lacontinuidad de los elementos relevantes en el discurso es ms importante que la tendencia aexplicitar los agentes: Los discursos son ms cohesivos (y presumiblemente ms fciles deprocesar) cuanto ms tienen oraciones con tpicos que se relacionan al tema general delprrafo o al material en la clusula inmediatamente precedente. (pp.501) Este uso de lapasiva para mantener el tema del texto parece ser predominante en una gran cantidad detextos. En un monlogo, ejemplifica Thompson, la pasiva es generalmente usada paramantenerse a s mismo (mediante los marcadores de primera persona) en posicin de sujeto.A veces se usa la pasiva para posicionar a alguien/algo recin introducido en el discursocomo tema principal o para mantener el paralelismo de estructura al tiempo que se utilizanuna serie de verbos todos los cuales siguen el mismo tema. De acuerdo a Tomlin (1985) lasfrases nominales compiten por la posicin de sujeto de acuerdo a la jerarqua temtica, lacual es determinada discursivamente. Ms an, los participantes en las clusulasprecedentes siguen el principio central de construccin discursiva: codificacin cohesivapara un ms fcil procesamiento. Codificar los no agentes como sujetos en ingls permiteuna transicin entre dos clusulas sin la disrupcin de introducir un nuevo agente.Anlisis del corpusIntentaremos ahora analizar cmo operan estos principios en el uso concreto en situacionesdeterminadas. En este caso, tomaremos un corpus conformado por una seleccin de textosde la campaa presidencial 2012 de los Estados Unidos, especialmente en el marco de lacandidatura para un nuevo perodo que Barack Obama aceptara oficialmente en lavolver al ndice 50. 504Convencin Nacional Demcrata (Democratic National Convention - DNC) celebrada enCharlotte, Carolina del Norte, el 6 de septiembre de 2012.Rebecca Sinderbrand, periodista de CNN, publica a las 10 de la maana del da siguiente ala Convencin, un extenso comentario sobre el discurso de Obama. Destaca que elPresidente Obama tena en esta ocasin que competir, no solamente consigo mismo o conlos fantasmas de convenciones pasadas, como la de 2004, en la que su discurso lo lanzal plano nacional, sino tambin con el discurso de la semana anterior de Mitt Romney,candidato republicano, el de Bill Clinton del da anterior, y el de la mismsima PrimeraDama de dos das antes. El discurso de Obama, en tanto, guarda con estos discursos previosuna relacin de intertextualidad e interdiscursividad que no pueden dejar de ser tenidas encuenta a la hora de realizar un anlisis del texto. Es por eso que lo estaremos analizando enun marco de referencia e interpretacin contextual que va ms all del contexto de situacindel presente discurso. De acuerdo a Sinderbrand, el Presidente Obama, al no poder igualarel impacto de esos discursos previos, decide tomar la estrategia de reconocer que las cosasno son color de rosa"The first time I addressed this convention in 2004, I was a younger man; a Senate candidate fromIllinois who spoke about hope -- not blind optimism or wishful thinking, but hope in the face ofdifficulty; hope in the face of uncertainty; that dogged faith in the future which has pushed thisnation forward, even when the odds are great; even when the road is long..."Eight years later, that hope has been tested by the cost of war, by one of the worst economiccrises in history, and by political gridlock thats left us wondering whether its still possible totackle the challenges of our time.Barack Obama tena en esta ocasin que enfrentar a todo el pueblo americano luego de unaadministracin de cuatro aos en la que muchas promesas no haban sido cumplidas. Enconsecuencia, se vio obligado a reconocer y por ende instalar a las dificultades eincertidumbres del pueblo americano en el centro de la escena para construir luego laposibilidad de un futuro mejor. Para ello, puntualiz que ni l ni la situacin en el paseran los mismos que en aquella primera vez en que enfrent ese mismo pblico en 2004como candidato a senador del estado de Illinois, y record su discurso en ese momento enel que promova la esperanza y fe en el futuro en medio de dificultades e incertidumbres,fe que segn anunci sac a la nacin adelante an cuando las dificultades erangrandes y el camino largo.volver al ndice 51. 515Obama ubica la referencia temporal ocho aos ms tarde como punto de partida delmensaje, en posicin temtica. De esa manera instala en el pensamiento de los americanosel tiempo transcurrido y las dificultades que han tenido que sortear para llegar hasta elpresente. Utiliza la voz pasiva en la clusula principal para topicalizar la esperanza delpueblo americano, la que dice haber sido puesta a prueba por el costo de la guerra, por unade las peores crisis econmicas de la historia y por la paralizacin de la poltica que nos hadejado pensando si es todava posible enfrentar los desafos de nuestro tiempo. Vemos uncaso de agente explcito en la voz pasiva cuya inclusin se justifica discursivamente entanto introduce informacin nueva y da peso focal a los obstculos y dificultades,detalladamente descriptos al final de la oracin, realizados lingsticamente por frasespreposicionales como complemento agente. El presidente Obama necesita focalizar en lasdificultades que ha enfrentado en su administracin para justificar las crticas republicanasy de algunos sectores de su propio partido acerca de las promesas incumplidas. Y agrega, I recognize that times have changed since I first spoke in this convention. The times havechanged and so have I. But know this, America. Our problems can be solved. Our challenges can be met. The path weoffer may be harder, but it leads to a better place. And Im asking you to choose that futureAhora llega el momento en que tiene que sermbrar la esperanza en el pueblo americano yasegurarles que los problemas se pueden resolver, que los desafos se pueden enfrentar,y para ello elige dos estructuras paralelas en voz pasiva, topicalizando los problemas y losdesafos en posicin temtica, combinado con otro recurso, el verbo modal can que abreuna posibilidad de solucin hacia el futuro. No incorpora al agente en ninguna de estas dosoraciones, ya que surge naturalmente que es su propuesta la que los puede llevar a vencerlos problemas. Destaca que el camino que les ofrece puede ser ms arduo pero queconduce a un lugar mejor y l les pide que elijan ese futuro, que evidentemente, es el que lofrece, y no se dejen