mindfulness como una intervención para mejorar el éxito académico de los estudiantes con el...

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Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 174 (2015) 221 226

Available online at www.sciencedirect.com

ScienceDirect

1877-0428 2015 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license

(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

Peer-review under responsibility of the Sakarya University

doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.01.650

INTE 2014

Mindfulness as an intervention for improving academic success

among students with executive functioning disorders.

Laura E. McCloskey*

George Mason University, Fairfax, Virginia, 22030, U.S.A.

Abstract

College attendance has increasingly become a seemingly mandatory next step following high school: employment, promotion,

and career-related skills frequently demand post-secondary training. As the college attendance rate has increased, the rate of

college attendees with diagnosed learning disabilities or learning challenges has followed suit (Connor, 2012). Time

management, including the abilities to focus attention and reach incremental goals, are critical to college success (Al-Harthy,

Qaboos, & Was, 2013). This paper attempts to analyze the role of mindfulness and self-awareness in relation to the etiology of

executive functioning disorders. Recent literature supports the use of mindfulness and meta-cognitive awareness as tools to help

students with executive functioning deficits succeed in high-stress academic environments.

2014 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Peer-review under responsibility of the Sakarya University.

Keywords:Mindfulness; time management; executive functioning; college students; academic success

1.Introduction: mindfulness as an intervention for executive functioning disorders.

The role of mindfulness as a key component of psychological counseling has been widely studied, but little

attention has been paid to the potential benefits of mindfulness in relationship to improving academic performance.

This paper addresses the relationship between time management skill-building and mindfulness practices leading to

increased beliefs of self-efficacy in college students. Citing Aud, et al. (2012) Watson (2013) discusses the cause for

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +1-703-993-2380; fax: +1-703-993-2378.

E-mail address: [email protected]

2015 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

Peer-review under responsibility of the Sakarya University
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222 Laura E. McCloskey / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 174 (2015) 221 226

concern regarding university retention and completion rates: "Among those who enrolled in 4-year institutions

during the 2004 fall semester, only 58% completed a bachelor's degree within 6 years." While there are numerous

reasons why students do not finish a degree, Vandenberg and Emery (2009) report that only 28% of students with a

diagnosed learning disability finish an undergraduate degree program. The retention and graduation rate for this

population is thus especially important to address in a timely manner.Through the synthesis of current research into

time management deficits in individuals with executive functioning difficulties, strategies for time management-

tracking and self-reflection are posited. While this paper does not propose to be a definitive source regarding therelevance or effectiveness of mindfulness for these purposes, it does fill a gap in research regarding ameliorating

executive functioning disorders in college students. It is hoped that this initial inquiry can be a first step into more

pronounced analysis and study of interventions to support college attendance, success, and retention for individuals

with learning disabilities or challenges.

1.1. Background: College-aged students with executive functioning difficulties.

The transition from high school to college is often complicated with the predictable life transitions of leaving

home, establishing a new peer group, and reaching emerging self-actualization in the adult world. College students,

especiallythose that have lived with executive functioning difficulties, may encounter the additional step of whether

to self-advocate for disability accommodations on campus, to receive updated testing to reconfirm their diagnosis, or

even begin to grapple with the potential adult diagnosis of a learning disability (Connor, 2012). Broadly, executivefunctioning relates to the mind's ability to organize, prioritize, and manage details that aid in daily functioning

(Barkley, 2012). Barkley (2012) additionally points out that a reliable and agreed upon definition of exactly what

executive functioning entails has yet to be created; this is largely due to a need for more precise neuropsychological

understanding of the volitional and automatic control centres in the brain. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

(ADHD) is widely accepted as the leading example of executive functioning disorders (The National Center for

Learning Disabilities, 2014). The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2012) estimate the United States

ADHD diagnosis rate to be 9.5% of all children between the ages of three to seventeen. Thus, the number of

students entering college with either a current or past ADHD diagnosis is potentially very high. A diagnosis of

ADHD includes either a combined presentation or categories of "predominantly inattentive presentation" or

"predominantly hyperactive-impulsive presentation" (DSM-V, 2013). The inattentive symptoms of the disorder

manifest as (but are not limited to) a persistent inability to maintain focus, chronic forgetfulness, difficulty

maintaining attention on tasks that require sustained cognitive endurance, and distractibility (DSM-V, 2013).

Hyperactive-impulsive symptoms include a need to fidget or not sit still for long periods of time, lack of patience,

and difficulty sticking to schedules (DSM-V, 2013). Not surprisingly, all of these components are essential in order

to pace one's self and succeed in rigorous college-level coursework: deficits in attention and impulse-control couldpotentially lead to lack of academic achievement or degree persistence towards graduation.

1.2. Background and usefulness of mindfulness in college populations.

Mindfulness-based Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (MBCT) and Mindfulness-based Stress Reduction (MBSR)

are therapeutic interventions that hinge upon an individual learning and practicing a form of meditation in addition

to receiving cognitive behavioural interventions to handle any distressing emotions that may emerge during therapy

(Barnett, Shale, Elkins, & Fisher, 2014). Barnett, et. al (2014) cite Kabat-Zinn's definition of the informal practice of

mindfulness as one of the many facets of MBCT, MBSR, and related therapies: "Mindfulness meditation

is commonly defined as paying attention in a particular waywith intention, in the present moment, andnonjudgmentally (Kabat-Zinn, 1994)." Barnett, et. al (2014) continue with a very clear example of what the practice

of informal mindfulness could look like: "Because the important part of mindfulness meditation is the meditators

state of mind rather than a specific posture or procedure, it can take many forms, including sitting and focusing on

the sensations of breathing or walking slowly and paying attention to the sensations of locomotion." Focusing on the

client's (in this case, student's) state of mind could help individuals recognize feeling states and problem-solve ways

to manage those emotions without letting them divert attention or lead to impulsivity. Additionally, MBCT has been

shown in preliminary studies to provide patients with some long-term skills to reduce relapses of anxiety and

depression (Coelho, Canter, & Ernst, 2013). Supporting this research, practicing mindfulness has been shown to


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223Laura E. McCloskey / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 174 (2015) 221 226

increase monitoring of internal mental states (Tang, Ma, Wang, Fan, Feng, & Lu, 2007). Thus, promoting

metacognitive awareness through intentional reflection upon both positive and negative emotional states could very

easily translate from the personal to academic realms: encouraging students to be purposely selective in their

actions. Furthermore, mindfulness has also been shown to decrease neuroticism and increase harm avoidance while

supporting increases in openness, agreeableness, and conscientiousness (Baer, Smith, & Allen, 2004; Brown &

Ryan, 2003). In these ways, mindfulness has the potential to help individuals achieve more balance in their lives,

especially during stressful times or when dealing with overwhelming emotional states.

2. Self-Regulation and self-efficacy as components of time management.

While motivation is a critical component of academic performance, self-regulation and perceptions of self-

efficacy are the larger drivers of many of the factors teachers often consider when grading student performance.

Related to executive functioning, self-regulation can be seen in a number of areas, such as appropriately pacing or

planning assignments given a timeframe or deadline. Perceptions of self-efficacy are tied to self-esteem and fuel

motivation: pre-assignment "I feel confident that I can do well on this assignment" and post-assignment "I prepared

myself to do well on my assignment and I received a good grade." A review of relevant literature explains these

concepts in more detail and helps support the use of mindfulness and time-tracking as therapeutic interventions for

executive functioning disorders.

2.1. Internal factors.

Bembenutty (2009) reports that self-regulation leads to motivation to succeed at a task and is divided into three

components: forethought, volitional control, and self-reflection. As students age, they become more adept at

following through with each of these steps and Bembenutty (2009) posits that this in turn leads to self -efficacy

(feelings that one is capable and able to create a goal and achieve it). Jot, Bressoux, and Usher (2011) took this

theory a step further and implemented a self-reflection Likert scale: they measured perception of self-efficacy within

a given content area, social factors within the classroom, and previous and current grades. They found that self-

efficacy was the core predictor of academic performance for their target group (elementary-aged students in France),

however their study did not offer strategies to promote self-efficacy. Martin (2004), took a different approach to this

topic and explored the Piagetian concept of self as cognitive constructivist (student's interactions and engagement in

the learning process) versus the Vygotskian approach to self within a sociocultural framework (learning and self-

regulation are a part of the specific social framework in which instruction is provided). Avci (2013) explored therole of delayed gratification in academic environments and found that students' ability to understand that effort put

forth before an assignment translated into better grades over time. Avci (2013) employed a "proximal sub-goal

system" in which students were instructed to longitudinally reflect upon their goals. Students in Avci's (2013) study

were also given a self-inventory Likert scale with questions designed to probe academic strategy use within and

outside of the classroom. Use of a calendar system as a time management strategy could potentially mirror the

proximal goal system which could translate into student gains in both self-efficacy and self-regulation. Ruban,

McCoach, McGuire, and Reis (2003) explored student performance on the Learning and Study Strategies Inventory

(LASSI) in a student population with diagnosed learning disabilities; they discovered that students with learning

disabilities scored lower in terms of self-perception of strategy use. Additionally, students who were simply told to

"study harder" or to remember to take notes, use a calendar, etc. did poorly in comparison with their peers because

they lacked understanding of exactly how using study strategies translated directly into grade point gains (Ruban, etal., 2003). This study suggests that students with executive functioning disorders may do best if learning strategies

are modelled for them, with explanations for the potential helpfulness ofthe strategies clearly articulated by a

knowledgeable practitioner.

2.2. External factors.

This area represents a relative gap in knowledge in regards to the most highly cited literature that was reviewed

on the topic and suggests that further study is needed to enhance the field. Kitsantis and Zimmerman (2009)

explored the relationship between quality and quantity of homework completion in high school and early college

students, since homework completion must be accomplished in a limited timeframe outside of class (when teacher


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intervention is likely not present). They administered a reflective inventory called the SELFto measure perceptions

of self-efficacy in relation to their homework assignments. Kitsantis and Zimmerman (2009) were able to conclude

that encouraging students to do their homework (and assigning homework at all) positively correlates with

improvement in self-regulation and self-efficacy, however they did not delineate specific classroom interventions.

3. Support strategies.

While Jot et al. (2011) were able to show that self-efficacy improves academic performance, they did not

address their methodology for coming to the conclusion that " individual-level, not classroom-level, factors best

explain how capable students feel of managing and organizing their work": this is an area where this paper and

further research can potentially provide important data to inform teacher practices. Zumbrunn and Bruning (2013)

used Self-Regulation Strategy Development (SRSD), which reinforces goal-setting and pre-planning before, during,

and after the writing process: they discovered that students were able to better articulate their goals, follow-through

with plans, and score higher on their assignments. In this study, Zumbrunn and Bruning (2013) taught students

component steps in goal-setting and metacognition through six lessons spread out over a week. This approach is

similar to lesson planning for a week or more of lessons in a middle school or college environment and could beeasily employed in classroom settings. Lee, Kim, and Grabowski (2011) employed two-tiered scaffolding of

explicit strategy instruction: "generative learning strategy prompts and metacognitive feedback" to undergraduate

science students and discovered that this improved students' self-perceptions of both self-regulation and self-

efficacy. Specifically, generative learning strategies included highlighting main ideas in textbook and creating

summaries of main ideas; metacognitive tasks included paraphrasing and synthesis of one concept in relation to

another. Lee et al. (2011) concluded that both activities are required in order to increase self-efficacy and self-

regulation: eliminating one or the other did not produce any gains in these areas; this suggests that when faculty are

creating strategies or interventions, it may be essential to scaffold both in terms of the strategy itself as well as

metacognitive awareness.

3.1. Evidence supporting the practice of mindfulnessin improving academic functioning.

The benefits of mindfulness on improving self-regulation and perceptions of self-efficacy transfer directly to

standard measures of academic success. Students who engage in mindfulness have been shown to score higher on

standardized tests and college course exams (Docksai, 2013). Docksai (2013) conducted a study at the University of

California, Los Angeles to determine if mindfulness helped students prepare for the Graduate Records Examination(GRE): students who engaged in mindfulness scored a full 16% higher between their first (pre-mindfulness) andsecond (post-mindfulness) attempts than the control group.High-stakes testing such as the GRE are unlikely to

disappear in the near future: strategies to prepare students to do well on these macro-level tests could easily be

applied to micro-level testing within disciplines on the regular college campus. Indeed, many universities have

initiated mindfulness practices (typically within a counselling centre) as a way to lower exam anxiety, improve

overall classroom attention, and foster an environment of sensitivity and awareness within and outside the classroom

(Docksai, 2013). Greenfield (cited within Docksai, 2013) notes: We can help our students learn to focus their

attention on the task at hand, to be more sensitive to others needs, and to manage natural feelings of anxiousness or

worry. While this can seem at first glance to be a rather hefty burden to place solely on the practice of mindfulness,

initial evidence into the effectiveness of mindfulness on college campuses is optimistic.

Practitioners of mindfulness have exhibited limited improvements in both short- and long-term memory free

recall (Lykins, Baer, & Gottlob, 2012). Additionally, practicing mindfulness appears to enhance working memory

capacity (Chambers, et al., 2007). Freeing up availability in short- and long-term memory stores could allow

students to more efficiently retain information from class to class: a necessity for all students, but of primary

importance to those already suffering from attentional deficits. Further, mindfulness has been found to increase both

sustained attention and attention switching (Chambers, Lo, & Allen, 2007). This is significant because improving

attentional control leads to greater cognitive flexibility and more metacognitive insight (Roemer & Orsillo, 2003;

Bishop, Lau, Shapiro, Carlson, Anderson, & Carmody 2004; Mason & Hargreaves, 2001; Teasdale, 1999; Teasdale,

Segal, & Williams, 1995). As previously discussed, these factors are essential to improving student motivation for

learning and achievement within and outside of the classroom. Empowering students with skills to improve attention

and memory may help students already struggling with executive functioning disorders feel better equipped to take


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225Laura E. McCloskey / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 174 (2015) 221 226

ownership over the learning process.

Considering executive functioning disorders specifically, mindfulness practice in individuals with ADHD can

lead to increases in conflict attention, more self-directedness, and increased self-transcendence: all are associated

with improvements in self-regulation (Smalley, Loo, Hale, Shrestha, McGough, Flook, & Reise, 2009). Howell and

Buro (2010) note that: "In the academic domain, it appears that mindfulness is an indirect predictor of achievement

emotions via its relationship with achievement-related self-regulation." Improvements in achievement-related self-

regulation are critical to seeing marked shifts in actual performance in individuals with executive functioningdisorders. Thus, mindfulness practice has proven implications for both academic and personal functioning: in fact,

the two realms seem inextricably intertwined in both research and practice.

4. Discussion and further research

While mindfulness should not be considered a panacea for deficits in interpersonal relationships or executive

functioning difficulties, recent research strongly supports the idea that practicing mindfulness results in empirically

proven benefits in numerous areas of personal and academic functioning. In an age when universities are frequently

seeking ways to enhance student well-being while concurrently improving graduation and retention rates, intentional

mindfulness practice appears to have the potential to provide significant benefits in all of these areas.It is essential

for universities to be aware of the needs and challenges of all students enrolled on campus: using mindfulness

practice to foster academic success and self-awareness in students with learning disabilities, particularly executive

functioning disorders, could reduce student stress and improve academic achievement. Further research into the

practical application of mindfulness programs on college campuses and the subsequent effect of these programs on

student functioning and persistence to graduation is needed.

Acknowledgements

The author would like to thank her colleagues in Counseling and Psychological Services at George Mason

University for their support during the research and writing processes of this article. Portions of this article emerged

from the literature review compiled for research conducted during the culminating semester of coursework for the

author's Master of Education degree, specifically in EDCI 777.

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