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Social Change in Modern IndiaIndia in 21st Century

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vk/kqfud Hkkjr esa lkekftd ifjorZu% 21oha lnh esa Hkkjr] f}rh; laLdj.kvk/kqfud Hkkjr esa lkekftd ifjorZu% 21oha lnh esa Hkkjr] f}rh; laLdj.kvk/kqfud Hkkjr esa lkekftd ifjorZu% 21oha lnh esa Hkkjr] f}rh; laLdj.kvk/kqfud Hkkjr esa lkekftd ifjorZu% 21oha lnh esa Hkkjr] f}rh; laLdj.kvk/kqfud Hkkjr esa lkekftd ifjorZu% 21oha lnh esa Hkkjr] f}rh; laLdj.kSocial Change in Modern India: India in 21st Century

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© 2016 by PHI Learning Private Limited, Delhi. All rights reserved. No part of this book may bereproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without permission in writing from thepublisher.

ISBN-978-81-203-5232-2

The export rights of this book are vested solely with the publisher.

Fifth Printing (Second Edition) … … … April, 2016

Published by Asoke K. Ghosh, PHI Learning Private Limited, Rimjhim House, 111, PatparganjIndustrial Estate, Delhi-110092 and Printed by Mohan Makhijani at Rekha Printers Private Limited,New Delhi-110020.

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1. lkekftd ifjorZu ................................................................................................................ 1–21(Social Change)

lkekftd ifjorZu dh fo'ks"krk,¡ ........................................................................................................ 4lkekftd ifjorZu osQ eq[; lzksr ........................................................................................................ 5lkekftd vkSj lkaLÑfrd ifjorZu ...................................................................................................... 6lkekftd ifjorZu ls lEc¼ oqQN voèkkj.kk,¡ ..................................................................................... 6mf}dkl (Evolution) ....................................................................................................................... 7çxfr (Progress) ............................................................................................................................. 7fodkl (Development) ................................................................................................................... 8lkekftd vkUnksyu (Social Movement) .......................................................................................... 9ØkfUr (Revolution) ...................................................................................................................... 10lkekftd ifjorZu osQ çfr:i] çdkj ;k vkn'kZ ................................................................................. 11

foycVZ eksj (Wilbert E. Moore) dk fopkj .................................................................................... 12

ckWVeksj (T. B. Bottomore) dk fopkj ............................................................................................. 14lkekftd ifjorZu osQ dkjd ............................................................................................................ 15References .................................................................................................................................. 21

2. mf}dklh; fl¼kUr ............................................................................................................ 22–36(Evolutionary Theory)

vkWxLr dkSar (Auguste Comte) ..................................................................................................... 24,y- ,p- ekWxZu (L. H. Morgan) ................................................................................................. 25dkyZ ekDlZ (Karl Marx) .............................................................................................................. 27gcZVZ LisUlj (Herbert Spencer) .................................................................................................... 28bZ- ch- Vk;yj (E. B. Tylor) .......................................................................................................... 29,- dkWLV (Adolphe Coste) ........................................................................................................... 29,fey MoZQgkbe (Emile Durkheim) .............................................................................................. 29csUtehu fdM (Benjamin Kidd) ................................................................................................... 30Vh- ch- oscyu (Thorstein B. Veblen) .......................................................................................... 30,y- Vh- gkWcgkml (L. T. Hobhouse) ............................................................................................ 31

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VSydkWV ikjlUl (Talcott Parsons) ................................................................................................ 32mf}dklh; fl¼kUr % ,d fo'ys"k.kkRed n`f"Vdks.k .......................................................................... 34References ................................................................................................................................. 36

3. pØh; fl¼kUr .................................................................................................................... 37–45(Cyclical Theory)

tksokuh fodks (Giovanni Vico) ..................................................................................................... 37oh- ikjsVks (Marquis Vilfredo Frederico Damaso Pareto) ............................................................ 38vkWtokYM LisaXyj (Oswald Spengler) ........................................................................................... 41fifVªe ,- lksjksfdu (Pitirim Alexandrovich Sorokin) .................................................................. 42vkWukZYM ts- VkW;uch (Arnold J. Toynbee) ..................................................................................... 44milagkj ......................................................................................................................................... 44References ................................................................................................................................. 45

4. la?k"kZ&fl¼kUr ...................................................................................................................... 46–63(Conflict Theory)

gsxy (G. W. F. Hegel) ................................................................................................................. 47dkyZ ekDlZ (Karl Marx) .............................................................................................................. 47okYVj cStkWV (Walter Bagehot) .................................................................................................... 52xqLrko jkRlsugkWiQj (Gustav Ratzenhofer) ..................................................................................... 52fizQMjhd fup ;k fuph (Friedrich W. Nietzsche) ......................................................................... 53yqMfox xEiyksfoDp (Ludwig Gumplowicz) ................................................................................ 54ts- uksfodkWo (Jacques Novicow) ................................................................................................. 55,Ych;u MCY;w- LekWy (Albion W. Small) ..................................................................................... 55Vh- oscysu (T. Veblen) ................................................................................................................. 56

Vh- ,u- dkoZj (Thomas Nixon Carver) ....................................................................................... 57yqfol ,- dkslj (Lewis A. Coser) ............................................................................................... 57jSYiQ MkjsuMkWiQ (Ralf Dahrendorf) ............................................................................................... 59ewY;kadu ........................................................................................................................................ 61References ................................................................................................................................. 62

5. çdk;Zokn .............................................................................................................................. 64–78(Functionalism)

gcZVZ LisUlj (Herbert Spencer) .................................................................................................... 65,fey MoZQgkbe (Emile Durkheim) .............................................................................................. 65ch- ekfyukWiQLdh (Bronislaw Malinowski) .................................................................................. 66,- vkj- jSMfDyiQ&czkmu (A. R. Radcliffe-Brown) ........................................................................ 67VSydkWV ikjlUl (Talcott Parsons) ................................................................................................ 69

iv fo"k;&lwphfo"k;&lwphfo"k;&lwphfo"k;&lwphfo"k;&lwph

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vkj- osQ- eVZu (Robert King Merton) .......................................................................................... 72ewY;kadu ........................................................................................................................................ 75References ................................................................................................................................. 77

6. Hkkjrh; lH;rk] laLÑfr vkSj lekt ........................................................................... 79–103(Indian Civilization, Culture and Society)

çeq[k fo'ks"krk,¡ .............................................................................................................................. 85fofoèkrkvksa esa ,drk ...................................................................................................................... 94vkJe&O;oLFkk .............................................................................................................................. 99vkJe&foHkktu ............................................................................................................................ 101vkJe&O;oLFkk % ,d ewY;kadu .................................................................................................... 102References ............................................................................................................................... 103

7. o.kZ O;oLFkk] bLyke rFkk bZlkbZ laLÑfr ................................................................ 104–122(Varna System, Islamic and Christian Culture)

o.kZ&O;oLFkk dh fo'ks"krk,¡ ........................................................................................................... 106o.kZ&O;oLFkk osQ çdk;Z ................................................................................................................. 107o.kZ&O;oLFkk dh mRifÙk ............................................................................................................... 108o.kZ&O;oLFkk % ,d ewY;kadu ......................................................................................................... 111o.kZ vkSj tkfr ............................................................................................................................... 112bLykeh ,oa bZlkbZ laLo`Qfr dk çknqHkkZo ........................................................................................... 116Hkkjrh; lekt dk bLykehdj.k ...................................................................................................... 116Hkkjrh; lekt dk bZlkbZdj.k ......................................................................................................... 118References ............................................................................................................................... 122

8. tkfr&O;oLFkk % Lo:i] mRifÙk ,oa ifjorZu dh ço`fÙk ...................................... 123–178(Caste System: Nature, Origin and Trends of Change)

Lo:i % ifjHkk"kk ,oa fo'ks"krk,¡ .................................................................................................... 124tkfr ,d lajpukRed vkSj lkaLd`frd voèkkj.kk osQ :i esa ............................................................ 128tkfr&O;oLFkk dh mRifÙk .............................................................................................................. 130fl¼kUrksa dh leh{kk ..................................................................................................................... 139tkfr&O;oLFkk % çkphudky ls fczfV'kdky rd .............................................................................. 139ledkyhu Hkkjr esa tkfr&O;oLFkk ................................................................................................. 142tkfr vkSj mi&tkfr ...................................................................................................................... 143czkã.kokn .................................................................................................................................... 143vè;;u osQ çeq[k ifjçs{; ............................................................................................................ 145tkfr&O;oLFkk vkSj dfri; lektfoKkuh ........................................................................................ 148

th- ,l- ?kw;sZ ............................................................................................................................... 149

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,e- ,u- Jhfuokl ........................................................................................................................ 150ncax tkfr ................................................................................................................................... 152

yqbZ Mwek¡ (Louis Dumont) .......................................................................................................... 154tkfr vkSj oxZ .............................................................................................................................. 158vUrtkZrh; lEcUèk ........................................................................................................................ 159;tekuh&O;oLFkk .......................................................................................................................... 161lkekftd lqèkkj vkUnksyu] dkuwu vkSj tkfr&O;oLFkk ...................................................................... 163tkfr&O;oLFkk dk ledkyhu Lo:i .............................................................................................. 165tkfr&O;oLFkk esa ifjorZu .............................................................................................................. 168tkfr&O;oLFkk esa ifjorZu osQ dkjd .............................................................................................. 170tkfrokn ...................................................................................................................................... 174tkfrokn osQ çeq[k dkjd .............................................................................................................. 175tkfrokn osQ oqQifj.kke .................................................................................................................. 177References ............................................................................................................................... 177

9. vuqlwfpr tkfr;k¡ ,oa vU; fiNM+s oxZ .................................................................... 179–204(Scheduled Castes and Other Backward Classes)

vuqlwfpr tkfr;ksa dk forj.k ........................................................................................................ 179vuqlwfpr tkfr dh ,sfrgkfld i`"BHkwfe ......................................................................................... 180vLi`';rk ..................................................................................................................................... 181vLi`';rk mUewyu gsrq fd;k x;k ç;kl ......................................................................................... 184vuqlwfpr tkfr;k¡ vkSj ljdkjh ç;kl ............................................................................................. 188vuqlwfpr tkfr;k¡ vkSj fodkl&dk;ZØe ......................................................................................... 191nfyr&jktuhfr ............................................................................................................................. 192fiNM+k oxZ rFkk vU; fiNM+s oxZ ................................................................................................... 197fiNM+k oxZ vkUnksyu .................................................................................................................... 199References ............................................................................................................................... 204

10. vuqlwfpr tutkfr;k¡ ..................................................................................................... 205–249(Scheduled Tribes)

Hkkjrh; tutkfr;ksa dk oxhZdj.k .................................................................................................... 210tutkrh; lekt esa èkeZ vkSj tknw .................................................................................................. 211tutkrh; vkUnksyu ...................................................................................................................... 218tutkfr vkSj taxy ...................................................................................................................... 227tutkrh; leqnk;ksa esa vkfFkZd laxBu ............................................................................................. 228tutkrh; leqnk;ksa esa jktuhfrd laxBu ......................................................................................... 231Hkkjr esa tutkfr;ksa dh leL;k,¡ ................................................................................................... 233tutkrh; leL;kvksa osQ lekèkku osQ mik; ..................................................................................... 240tutkfr;ksa ij uxjhdj.k ,oa vkS|ksxhdj.k dk çHkko ...................................................................... 241

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vkfnoklh fodkl osQ eq[; vojksèkd .......................................................................................... 247References ............................................................................................................................... 249

11. lkekftd xfr'khyrk ,oa tkfr&O;oLFkk ................................................................. 250–273(Social Mobility and Caste System)

lkekftd xfr'khyrk dh çÑfr ..................................................................................................... 251xfr'khyrk osQ ifj.kke .................................................................................................................. 252lkekftd xfr'khyrk ,oa lkekftd ifjorZu ................................................................................... 254lkekftd xfr'khyrk osQ çdkj ...................................................................................................... 254lkekftd xfr'khyrk osQ fuèkkZjd rÙo ........................................................................................... 258cUn ,oa [kqyk lekt .................................................................................................................... 260cUn ,oa [kqyk lekt osQ chp vUrj ............................................................................................. 261ik'pkR; ns'kksa esa lkekftd xfr'khyrk ........................................................................................... 262tkfrewyd Hkkjrh; lekt ,oa xfr'khyrk ....................................................................................... 264tkfr&O;oLFkk esa xfr'khyrk .......................................................................................................... 269bDdhloha lnh osQ Hkkjr esa tkfr&O;oLFkk ..................................................................................... 270References ............................................................................................................................... 272

12. Hkkjrh; ukjh vkSj ySafxd HksnHkko ............................................................................. 274–319(Indian Women and Gender Discrimination)

,sfrgkfld i`"BHkwfe ...................................................................................................................... 275oqQN ,sfrgkfld çFkk,¡ .................................................................................................................. 279lqèkkj vkUnksyu vkSj efgyk .......................................................................................................... 280eqfLye efgykvksa dh fLFkfr ......................................................................................................... 283tutkrh; efgykvksa dh fLFkfr ...................................................................................................... 286ukjh lekurk dk ;FkkFkZ ................................................................................................................ 289efgyk vkSj dk;Z .......................................................................................................................... 294efgykvksa dh jktuhfrd Hkkxhnkjh .................................................................................................. 296efgyk&l'kfDrdj.k ...................................................................................................................... 297fL=k;ksa dh fuEu fLFkfr osQ dkjd .................................................................................................. 299fyax ............................................................................................................................................ 301ukjhokn ........................................................................................................................................ 304if'peh ukjhokn cuke Hkkjrh; ukjhokn ......................................................................................... 306fir`lÙkkRedrk ,oa Hkkjrh; ukjh .................................................................................................... 307vkSjrksa dh vktknh % fdruk lp fdruk >wB ................................................................................. 310lkfyax vkèkkfjr Je&foHkktu ........................................................................................................ 311vkèkqfudksÙkjokn] ukjh ,oa cnyrk lekt ........................................................................................ 312vUrjjk"Vªh; efgyk&fnol ............................................................................................................. 316References ............................................................................................................................... 319

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13. vkèkqfud Hkkjr esa lkekftd ifjorZu dh ,sfrgkfld ifjfLFkfr;k¡ .................... 320–341(Historical Conditions for Social Change in Modern India)

jktk jkeeksgu jk; % Hkkjrh; iqutkZxj.k osQ vxznwr ......................................................................... 322bZ'oj pUæ fo|klkxj .................................................................................................................... 324lkekftd ,oa èkkfeZd lqèkkj osQ dfri; vkUnksyu .......................................................................... 325czãks lekt .................................................................................................................................. 326ijegal e.Myh ,oa çkFkZuk lekt ................................................................................................. 327vk;Zlekt&vkUnksyu ..................................................................................................................... 328jkeÑ".k fe'ku vkUnksyu .............................................................................................................. 329fFk;kslkWfiQdy lkslkbVh ................................................................................................................. 330fn los±V~l vkWiQ bafM;k lkslk;Vh ................................................................................................... 331lR;'kksèkd lekt vkUnksyu ........................................................................................................... 331Jh ukjk;.k èkeZ ifjikyu ;ksxe .................................................................................................... 332vyhx

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vejhdhdj.k ,oa Hkkjrh; lekt osQ cnyrs ewY; .......................................................................... 368vejhdh miHkksDrkokn ,oa HkkSfrdokn ............................................................................................ 370if'pehdj.k ,oa vkèkqfudhdj.k .................................................................................................... 373References ............................................................................................................................... 374

16. èkeZfujis{khdj.k ;k ykSfddhdj.k ............................................................................. 375–384(Secularization)

èkeZfujis{khdj.k osQ dkjd ............................................................................................................. 377èkeZfujis{khdj.k osQ çeq[k vk;ke .................................................................................................. 380ewY;kadu ...................................................................................................................................... 382References ............................................................................................................................... 384

17. dkuwu vkSj lkekftd ifjorZu .................................................................................... 385–397(Law and Social Change)

dkuwu dk Lo:i .......................................................................................................................... 385lkekftd dkuwuksa dk egÙo .......................................................................................................... 386Hkkjr osQ oqQN çeq[k lkekftd vfèkfu;e ...................................................................................... 387dkuwu ,oa cky&fookg dh leL;k ................................................................................................ 394dkuwu vkSj ngst dh leL;k ......................................................................................................... 395Hkkjrh; lafoèkku % ifjorZu dk ,d çdk'kLrEHk ............................................................................. 396References ............................................................................................................................... 397

18. ijEijk ............................................................................................................................... 398–406(Tradition)

ijEijk dk Lo:i ........................................................................................................................ 398ijEijkxr Hkkjrh; lekt dh fo'ks"krk,¡ .......................................................................................... 400References ............................................................................................................................... 406

19. y?kq ,oa c`gr~ ijEijk,¡] lkoZHkkSehdj.k rFkk ladh.khZdj.k .................................. 407–416(Little and Great Traditions, Universalization and Parochialization)

y?kq ijEijk .................................................................................................................................. 408c`gr~ ijEijk ................................................................................................................................. 408c`gr~ ,oa y?kq ijEijk osQ chp vUrj ............................................................................................. 409c`gr~ ,oa y?kq ijEijk % ,d vUr%fØ;k ....................................................................................... 410Hkkjrh; yksd laLÑfr osQ oqQN cnyrs igyw ................................................................................... 410lkoZHkkSehdj.k ............................................................................................................................... 413ladh.khZdj.k ................................................................................................................................. 413lkoZHkkSehdj.k ,oa ladh.khZdj.k esa vUrj ....................................................................................... 414

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lEcfUèkr voèkkj.kk,¡ % ,d vkykspukRed leh{kk ......................................................................... 415References ............................................................................................................................... 416

20. vkS|ksxhdj.k] uxjhdj.k ,oa lkekftd ifjorZu ................................................... 417–437(Industrialization, Urbanization and Social Change)

uxjksa dh mRifÙk ........................................................................................................................... 417uxjksa dk oxhZdj.k ....................................................................................................................... 420vkS|ksxhdj.k ................................................................................................................................. 421uxjhdj.k .................................................................................................................................... 423uxjhdj.k dh fo'ks"krk,¡ ............................................................................................................... 425vkèkqfud uxjhdj.k dh fo'ks"krk,¡ ................................................................................................. 426uxjhdj.k ,oa vkS|ksxhdj.k ........................................................................................................... 427uxjhdj.k ,oa vkS|ksxhdj.k osQ ifj.kke ......................................................................................... 429References ............................................................................................................................... 436

21. vkèkqfudhdj.k ,oa vkèkqfudksÙkjokn ......................................................................... 438–457(Modernization and Post-modernism)

Lo:i ;k ifjHkk"kk ........................................................................................................................ 438vkèkqfudhdj.k dh fo'ks"krk,¡ ......................................................................................................... 441vkèkqfudhdj.k osQ vk;ke ............................................................................................................. 441vkèkqfudhdj.k dks c

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lkekftd vkUnksyu vkSj lkewfgd O;ogkj ..................................................................................... 470yksdrU=k vkSj lkekftd vkUnksyu .................................................................................................. 471lkekftd vkUnksyu osQ fl¼kUr ..................................................................................................... 472Hkkjrh; lkekftd vkUnksyu .......................................................................................................... 476lkekftd vkUnksyu vkSj lkekftd ifjorZu .................................................................................... 479References ............................................................................................................................... 484

23. LorU=k Hkkjr esa yksdrU=k vkSj jktuhfr .................................................................... 486–531(Democracy and Politics in Independent India)

vkèkqfud yksdrU=k ........................................................................................................................ 487yksdrU=k osQ çdkj ........................................................................................................................ 488Hkkjrh; yksdrU=k % n'kk vkSj fn'kk ................................................................................................ 489Hkkjrh; yksdrU=k fdruk yksdrU=k .................................................................................................. 492{ks=kh; ny cuke jk"Vªh; ny ......................................................................................................... 495e.My jktuhfr dk u;k iM+ko ...................................................................................................... 496jktuhfr dk vijkèkhdj.k vkSj vijkèk dk jktuhfrdj.k ................................................................. 498yksdrU=k vkSj pqukoh fgalk ............................................................................................................ 500usr`Ro ladV dh leL;k ................................................................................................................ 501Hkkjr esa oa'kokn ;k ifjokjokn ...................................................................................................... 503jktuhfr esa tkfr o èkeZ ................................................................................................................ 505eqfLye oksV cSad vkSj yksdrU=k ..................................................................................................... 508vfDy;r dh jktuhfr .................................................................................................................. 509ilek¡nk eqlyekuksa dh leL;k,¡ ...................................................................................................... 511ns'k dh jktuhfr esa pqukoh eqís ..................................................................................................... 512Hkkjrh; jktuhfr esa Hkz"Vkpkj .......................................................................................................... 518Hkz"Vkpkj dh O;kidrk .................................................................................................................. 522yksdrU=k vkSj eè;oxZ ................................................................................................................... 525Hkkjr esa yksdrU=k dk Hkfo"; ........................................................................................................ 528References ............................................................................................................................... 530

24. fodkl osQ lekt'kkL=kh; igyw ................................................................................... 532–576(Sociological Aspects of Development)

fodkl dh voèkkj.kk ................................................................................................................... 533fodkl osQ fofoèk vk;ke ............................................................................................................. 536lkekftd fodkl ......................................................................................................................... 541fodkl osQ vk/kj ij ns'kksa dk oxhZdj.k ........................................................................................ 543fodkl'khy ns'kksa dh dfri; fo'ks"krk;sa ......................................................................................... 543fodkl'khy ns'kksa dh vkfFkZd ,oa lÙkk lajpuk esa fo"kerk .............................................................. 546

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lkaLÑfrd ifjorZu ....................................................................................................................... 547v¼Zfodkl osQ fl¼kUr ................................................................................................................. 547fodkl dk ekDlZoknh fl¼kUr ....................................................................................................... 550fodkl dk ekuo'kkL=kh; fl¼kUr .................................................................................................. 552fodkl dk euksoSKkfud ifjçs{; .................................................................................................... 554MsfoM eSdfyySaM miyfC/&mUeq[k O;fDrRo fopkj ......................................................................... 556vkfFkZd fodkl vkSj lkekftd lajpuk ........................................................................................... 557lkekftd U;k; dh vo/kj.kk ....................................................................................................... 558Hkkjr esa vkfFkZd fodkl % ,d lekt'kkL=kh; fu:i.k .................................................................... 559xk¡o] X+kjhch vkSj mnkjhdj.k .......................................................................................................... 561Hkkjrh; fodkl dk Lo:i ............................................................................................................ 563vleku Hkkjrh; fodkl dh rLohj ................................................................................................ 564iapo"khZ; ;kstuk,¡ ......................................................................................................................... 565lkekftd oqQjhfr;k¡ ,oa fodkl dh leL;k .................................................................................... 567tula[;k o`f¼ vkSj vkfFkZd fodkl dh leL;k ............................................................................. 569c

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,d ys[kd osQ :i esa esjs fy, ;g cgqr g"kZ dh ckr gS fd eq>s mu reke ikBdksa osQ çfr fiQj ls viuk vkHkkjçdV djus dk volj feyk gS] ftUgksaus bl iqLrd osQ iwoZ laLdj.kksa dks leku :i ls viukdj bldh yksdfç;rkesa o`f¼ dh gSA blh lg;ksx osQ vkHkkj&Lo:i ;g iqLrd iw.kZr;k la'kksfèkr laLdj.k osQ :i esa u;h lkexzh osQ lkFkiqu% çLrqr gSA çLrqr laLdj.k og ugha gS] tks bldk fiNyk laLdj.k Fkk] D;ksafd eSaus bl iqLrd osQ la'kksèku osQlkFk&lkFk ifjektZu o ifjo¼Zu dk Hkh dk;Z fd;k gSA

dbZ fo'ofo|ky;ksa }kjk ikB~;Øeksa esa tks ifjorZu fd, x, gSa] mUgsa è;ku esa j[kdj bl iqLrd esa dbZ u;svè;k;ksa dks tksM+k x;k gS ,oa iqjkus vè;k;ksa esa vko';drkuqlkj u;h lkexzh Hkh tksM+h x;h gSA lkFk gh u;s lUnHkks±ls iqLrd dk çR;sd vè;k; dkiQh le`¼ gSA çLrqr iqLrd esa fo"k; lkexzh O;kid gS ,oa lUnHkZ dh n`f"V ls i;kZIrlehphu Hkh gSA ;FkklEHko uohure çkekf.kd lekt'kkL=kh; rF;ksa ,oa vè;;uksa dks blesa lfEefyr fd;k x;k gSAegÙoiw.kZ ckr rks ;g gS fd bl iqLrd esa reke çkekf.kd rF;ksa dk ladyu ,d gh LFkku ij miyCèk gSA dksf'k'kdh x;h gS fd fgUnh dh vU; iqLrdksa dh rjg bl iqLrd esa vaxzsT+kh ls fgUnh dk nks"kiw.kZ vuqokn ,oa vaxzsT+kh ukeksadk nks"kiw.kZ mPpkj.k u jgsA iqLrd dh Hkk"kk ljy ,oa Li"V gS rFkk blesa O;kid voèkkj.kkvksa] fl¼kUrksa ,oa fopkjksadks laf{kIr :i ls uohu lanHkZ esa çLrqr fd;k x;k gSA fofoèk çfr;ksfxrk ijh{kkvksa esa lfEefyr gksusokys Nk=kksa dksvc fofoèk lekt'kkL=kh; iqLrdksa dks [kkstus dh vko';drk 'kk;n ugha iM+sxhA bUgha lc ckrksa dks è;ku esa j[kdjtks oqQN cu iM+k gS] cl ogh fo|kfFkZ;ksa ,oa foK çkè;kidksa dh lsok esa çLrqr gSA

eSa iVuk fo'ofo|ky; osQ lekt'kkL=k foHkkx osQ vius reke u;s&iqjkus lgdfeZ;ksa fo'ks"kdj çks- ,- nklxqIrk]çks- vkj- ,u- 'kekZ rFkk MkW- oh- osQ- yky osQ çfr vkHkkjh gw¡] ftUgksaus bl iqLrd dks yksdfç; cukus esa egÙoiw.kZ;ksxnku fn;k gSA vius dfri; fç; f'k";ksa o vuqtksa ;Fkk MkW- deys'k oqQekj] MkW- laxhr oqQekj] MkW- çHkkr oqQekjflag] MkW- mn; ukjk;.k flag] MkW- eukst oqQekj] MkW- lqHkk"kpUæ çHkkr] MkW- fnyhi oqQekj flag rFkk MkW- jke ukjk;.kflag dks Hkh lân; èkU;okn Kkiu djuk pkgw¡xk tks ys[kd osQ :i esa eq>s lg;ksx vkSj Lusg nsrs jgs gSaA vUr esaeSa MkW- euh"k flag ,oa Jh lrh'kjkt iq"dj.kk osQ çfr vkHkkj O;ÙkQ djuk pkgrk gw¡] ftUgksaus dfri; vè;k;ksa dkçwiQ&'kksèku dk cgqewY; dk;Z fd;k gSA

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Publisher : PHI Learning ISBN : 9788120352322Author :

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