grammar resumen

8/7/2019 grammar resumen

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Grammar

Subjects

In a sentence, every verb needs asubject. Once you have found averb in a sentence, you can identifyits subject if you know the typicalrelationships between verbs andsubjects. Recognizing the subjectsof your sentences makes it easierfor you to clarify and develop yourideas in writing.

In Chapter 3, you will learn that

the subject answers thequestion "Who or what(verb)?"

the subject in a statementusually comes before the verb except in questions; thesubject in a question is usually between the two parts ofthe split verb.

the role of the subject is often played by a noun(sometimes a pronoun can stand in the place of a noun).

the simple subject is a subject stripped of all the wordsthat describe it.

sentences can be combined by compounding theirsubjects.

Subjects: Your WritingRecall an experience from your past (for instance, meeting

someone important to you, leaving home, an accident, asurprise, or an adventure). Concentrate on just one incident.Picture yourself as you were then, and try to remember how youfelt. Recall the people and things around you, the smells, thesounds, the weather, and so on. On scrap paper, jot notesandfreewrite, getting down all that you can remember aboutthat experience.

Inside This ChapterBegin here to navigate through eachsection.1. Your Writing: Narrating an

Experience from the Past2. "Who or What (Verb)?"

3. Placement

4. Nouns and Pronouns as

Subjects

5. Simple Subjects6. Combining Sentences by

Compounding Subjects7. Review & Practice

8. Fun With Grammar: FindThat Subject!

9. Return to Your Writing

10.Mastery Test on Subjects
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1.Arrange what you've written into the first fewsentences of a paragraph, selecting the detailsyou think are most important. Use the word Iatleast three times in your story. For example,your paragraph might start like this:

When I was ten, I met my grandparentsfrom Italy for the first time. I was soexcited and scared about their coming that

I could hardly eat for a week in advance. ..

2.Now imagine that someone else is telling thissame story about you. Cross out Iwherever

you've used it, and write in either yournameor heor she. Make any other changesnecessary for the story to sound as if someoneelse is telling it. For example:

When I Monica wasten, I she met my hergrandparents fromItaly for the first time. I She was so excitedand scared about their comingthat I she could hardly eat for a week inadvance. . .

Many of the words that you cross out and change will besubjects.

If your teacher or study group would like you to develop thisexercise into a longer narrative paragraph, please revise itdouble-spaced on a fresh piece of paper, a word processor, or aclass bulletin board.

Subjects: "Who or What (Verb)?"Once you've found the verb of a sentence, you can identify thesubject by putting the question "Who or what?" in front of theverb.Bronsonhates jazz.


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In this sentence, hates is the verb. You ask, "Who or what hatesjazz?The answer is Bronson, so Bronson is the subject.Enchiladas aren't always hot. (What aren't hot? Enchiladas)A friend of mine in San Diego makes them without peppers.(Who makes them ? friend)Even your picky niece would eat that kind. (Who would eatthem?niece){You} bring her over on Friday for the big test. (Who bringsher? you)Notice that the last sentence is a command in which the subjectis not stated, but it's understood. Asking "Who or what . . .?"reveals that the subject must be you:{You} give me a bite.{You} don't put chili sauce on it.

Subjects: PlacementIn most statements, the subject comes before the verb.Youhave been dreaming about socks again.Thathas some deep significance.In most questions, you can find the subject after the first part ofa split verb.(Remember that to split a single-word verb, you mustadd do, does, or did.)

Haveyoubeen dreaming about socks again?Does that imagehave some deep significance?When am, is, are, was, or werestands as a single-word verb, it

doesn't split for a question, but it does move to the front of thesubject in a question:

Thatis a good luck sign. -- Isthat a good luck sign?Youare superstitious. -- Areyou superstitious?


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Subjects: Nouns and Pronouns as Subjects

The role of subject is often played by a noun. Sometimes apronoun can stand in the place of a noun.A noun labels or names a person, a place, a thing, or an idea.The words in boldbelow are nouns:The message came from Harold Durum in Illinois, wherethe sky is broad and the farmers cherish their freedom.A pronoun is a word that takes the place of a noun.Gary can't find his polka-dotted shoelace because Gary he droppedthe shoelace it behindthe bathtub in the dark.The pronoun it takes the place of the noun shoelace and refersto an earlier mention of that same noun. Thepronoun he replaces and refers to Gary. Some other pronounsthat replace and point backward to nouns are they, them*, she,her*, he, and him*.Those shoelaces cost Gary$3.50 and Gary he washed theshoelacesthem every night. The shoelaces They meant a lotto Gary him.Several other pronouns don't have to point backwards to thewords they replace because everyone knows what they standfor:

I, me*, = the person speaking we, us*, = the people speaking you = the person or people listening

The pronouns with an asterisk (*) beside them cannot be usedas subjects.Chapter 13examines pronouns in more detail.

Application 3Not all nouns and pronouns are subjects. Some play other rolesin their sentences:Youshouldn't teaseGary about shoelaces.Givehim a break.
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In this pair of sentences there are several non-subject nouns(Gary, shoelaces,break) and a non-subject pronoun (him).Remember that the pronoun you is understood to be the subjectin a command.

Subjects: Simple SubjectsWhen a subject is stripped of all the words that describe it,the simple subject is left.The girlslaughed.The tough girlslaughed.The rowdy, tough girlslaughed.The rowdy, tough girls in the roller derby laughed.The rowdy, tough girls in the roller derby on TV laughed.In each of these sentences, the simple subject is girls. A simplesubject is only one word.

Application 5Go back and look carefully at the sentences in Application 5.Notice the following words: in, of, to, about, for. These fivewords are prepositions (discussed in more detail inChapter 4).

The first noun or pronoun that appears after one of thesewordscannotbe the simple subject:The kids [in my family] love the African Stone Game.The pattern [of the stones] is always changing.Chapter 4describes in more detail how modifiers expandsubjects, andChapter 12offers more practice with sentenceswhere groups of words come between the simple subject andthe verb. Throughout the rest of this book, theword subjectrefers to thesimple subject, the one-word subjectwithout any describing words.

Subjects: Sentence Combining With CompoundSubjectsA verb can take more than one subject.
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The padlock and chain on his refrigerator door speak louderthan words.Compounding is the process of joining similar parts. Joiningseparate subjects to go with one verb results in a compoundsubject. The words that can join subjectsare:and, but, yet, or, nor. These words are conjunctions.Sugar and insulinare always changing their levels in humanblood.

Sometimes these conjunctions work in partnership with otherwords:either. . . or. . .neither. . . nor. . .both. . . and. . .not only. . . but also. . .

Not only sweets but also starchesmay stimulate the pancreas toproduce excess insulin, reducing the blood sugar level.

When more than two subjects are compounded, the conjunctionmay appear between only the last two, while the others areseparated by commas.Muffins, potatoes, and spaghettiare converted to sugar duringdigestion.A briefspurt of energy after eating, a sudden attack of fatigue,and then sustained low spiritscan follow eating orgies.


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Completers andModifiersA subject + verb combination may

need a word or group of words tocomplete the meaning of thesentence. In addition, a sentence isusually expanded with modifiersthat clarify the meaning of thesentence. Recognizing completersand modifiers helps you tounderstand how sentences work sothat you can straighten out tanglesmore easily as you revise yourwritten sentences.

In Chapter 4, you will learn that

a completer answers thequestion "(Subject + verb)whom or what?"

nouns, pronouns, anddescribing words can act as

completers. modifiers add to or limit a word's meaning. a modifier can be a single word. a prepositional phrase always acts as a modifier. sentences can be combined by compounding their

completers and modifiers.

Completers and Modifiers: WritingTake a few minutes to observe the room around you. Notice

specific objects, the light, the space, and the atmosphere of theplace. Look closely for details, including those that seemunimportant at first, like a shadow on the wall or the rumble ofthe air conditioner. On scrap paper, jot down all yourobservations, organizing them into relatedclusters.(Clickherefor an introduction to clustering.)

Inside This ChapterBegin here to navigate through eachsection.

1. Your Writing: Describing a

Room from Direct

Observation

2. "(Subject + Verb) Whom orWhat?"

3. Words That Act as

Completers

4. Recognizing the Difference

between Completers andSubjects

5. How Modifiers Work

6. Single-Word Modifiers

7. Prepositional PhraseModifiers

8. Combining Sentences byCompounding Completers or

Modifiers9. Review & Practice

10.Fun With

Grammar: Jabberwocky

11.Return to Your Writing12.Mastery Test on Completers

& Modifiers
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1.Use the clusters of observations to help youwrite a paragraph that conveys a picture of theroom. Start your first sentence with thesewords: "When I walk into ____________ , thefirst thing I notice is . . . ." Go on from there.

2.Looking at your first sentence, put [squarebrackets] around the word or phrase that you'vewritten after "the first thing I notice is . . . " This

is probably a completer. In the next fewsentences, look for words that describe otherwords. Underline these words. These areprobably modifiers. Try to decide which otherword in the sentence each modifier describes.When you finish Chapter 4, you'll be able to find

the rest of the completers and modifiers in yourparagraph.

If your teacher or study group would like you to develop thisexercise into a longer descriptive paragraph, please revise itdouble-spaced on a fresh piece of paper, a word processor, or aclass bulletin board.

Completers and Modifiers: "(Subject + Verb)Whom or What?"

Once you've found the subject and verb of a sentence, you cancheck to see if the sentence has a completer by asking "whomor what?" after the verb.Bronson hates jazz.In this sentence, hates is the verb and Bronson is the subject.You ask "Bronson hates whom or what. . .? The answer is jazz,

so jazz is the completer. Here are some others:Enchiladasaren't always hot. (Enchiladas aren't what?hot)My friend in San Diego makes them without peppers. (Friendmakes what?them)


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Believe me. (Remember fromChapter 3that the subject of acommand isyou, so for this sentence the question is: "Youbelieve whom?"me)

After one bite of his enchiladas, your prejudice against Mexicanfoodwould vanish instantly. (Prejudice would vanish whom?Prejudice would vanish what? No answer, so there is nocompleter in this sentence.)

Completers and Modifiers: Words That Act asCompletersThe role of completer may be played by a noun, a pronoun, or aword that describes the subject.The rowdy girlswere making trouble. (Noun completer)The cop finally arrested them. (Pronoun completer)Behavior like that is crazy. (Completer describes the subject)A noun names a thing, person, place, or idea. A pronoun takesthe place of a noun and makes it possible to avoid repeatingthat noun.Chapter 13discusses pronouns in more detail. Thekind of completer that describes the subject is a modifier as wellas a completer. The later part of this chapter will explore

modifiers in more detail.

Clickherefor a list of verbs that take gerund and infinitivecompleters.

Application 2Verbs That Take Gerund and Infinitive Completers1. Infinitives1a. Regular, no agent He can afford to call them.1b. With optional agent for the action You wanted me to call them. OR

You wantedto call them.1c. With required agent for the action She reminded us to call them.1* Used without the word "to" We heard her call them.
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2. Gerunds2a. Regular, no agent Juno enjoys calling them.2b. With required agent forthe action

We heard you calling them(**) Difference in meaning I forgot tocall them. || I forgot calling them.

acknowledge choose enjoy hope persuade recommend seem

admit command expect imagine plan refuse start

advise consent fail intend practice regret stop

afford consider feel invite prefer remember teach

agree continue finish involve Completer Types | Examplesallow dare forbid learn

anticipate decide force let

appear demand forget like

appreciate deny get love

ask deserve give up make

avoid

discuss

hate

mention

beg dislike have miss

begin endure hear need

celebrate encourage help neglect pretend remind tell

challenge enable(cannot)help

notice promise see understand

watch want wish
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Completers and Modifiers: Recognizing the

Difference Between Completers and SubjectsDon't confuse completers with subjects.It's important to see the difference between nouns or pronounsacting as subjects and those acting as completers.

At birth, a babyhas three hundred thirty bones.The verb is has. "Who or what has?" -- baby = subject."Baby has whom or what?" -- bones = completer.

During growth, many small bonesfuse.Verb = fuse. "Who or what fuse?" --bones = subject."Bones fuse whom or what? -- no answer, no completer.

Only two-hundred-six bones finally support an adult's body.Verb = support. "Who or what support?" --bones = subject."Bones support whom or what?" -- body = completer.

To analyze a sentence, always look first for the verb(seeChapter 2for more help). Then find the subject by asking"Who or what (verb)?" Finally, check to see whether there is a

completer by asking, "(Subject + verb) whom or what?" The

subject usually comes before the verb, and a completer usuallycomes after the verb.

Extra Note: We can sort completers further into several groups. Jackie brought some coffee with her.

She offered me a sip. It was rich. That sip was a tonic for my bad mood. I consider Jackie my most thoughtful friend.

Each of the completers above performs a slightly differentfunction in its sentence. If you want to learn the differencesamong these functions, your teacher may give you informationand exercises to help you explore these groups in more detail.
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Completers and Modifiers: How Modifiers WorkA modifier adds to or limits a word's meaning.Modifiers describe other words, making the meaning of those

other words more specific. Modifiers answer the followingquestions about the words they modify:

What kind? Which one(s)? How many or how much? Whose?When? Where? Why? How? To what extent? Under whatconditions?

Watch this sentence become more specific as it adds modifiers:BASIC SENTENCE: Women earn salaries.(How many women?)Manywomen earn salaries.(Which women?)Manywomen in the civil servicesearn salaries.(What kind of salaries?)Manywomen in the civilservicesearn goodsalaries.(When?)Manywomen in the civil servicesearn good salariesafter their first few promotions.

Completers and Modifiers: Single Word ModifiersA single word may play the role of modifier.Somebusybodies cause serioustrouble. (Some answers "Whichbusybodies?" and serious answers "What kind of trouble?")Thatcreep constantlylies. (That answers "Which creep?"andconstantly answers "When?")Sometimes several single words, each one acting separately,can modify the same word:He has neverfelt a generous humanimpulse. (Never answers"When?",a answers "How many impulses?",and generous and human answer "What kind of impulse?")Note that when a verb's modifier splits the verb in two, as in thecase ofneverin the example above, the modifier refers to themain verb.


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Completers and Modifiers: Prepositional Phrase

ModifiersA prepositional phrase begins with a preposition and ends withan object, which is usually a noun or a pronoun.In the sentences below, the prepositional phrases arein italicsand enclosed within brackets [ ___ ]. There is anasterisk (*) after each preposition.

Please open that door [beside* you].

Thank goodness we bought that fan [by* the window].

We really needed it [during* the night].

We'd have been miserable [without* it].

Notice how the preposition in each sentence shows arelationship between the object and the word that the phrasemodifies. Prepositions often show space or time relationships (asin the first three examples above) but sometimes they showother kinds of relationship (as in the fourth example above).

Here is a list of some words that often act as prepositions.

Expressing space relationships Examplesabove down beyond* Dallas

around* townbeside* the trackstoward* every stoplightunder* the bridgeon* these tripsin* her steady good humor

across from

against in

along into

among off

around on

at over

behind past

below through

beneath to


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beside toward

between under

beyond up

by within

Expressing time relationships Examplesafter since until* the last moment

during* the train ridebefore until

during

Expressing other relationships Examplesabout like like* mine

for* herdespite* the weatherabout* my best friendfrom* a small townof* some forgotten old adventures

as of

despite than

except with

for without

from

Don't try to memorize this list. Once you get the feel of therelationships signaled by prepositions, you won't need lists likethis any more.

Between a preposition and its object there may be one or moresingle-word modifiers.[before* the first play][of* Lewis's most important game]

Application 6A prepositional phrase always acts as a modifier.The roads [beyond* Dallas] were in terrible shape. (Where?)

I remember that bumpy street [beside* the tracks]. (Which?)
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You always bounced wildly [toward* every stoplight]. (Where?)

I certainly had doubts [about* my best friend] then. (Whatkind?)

Tip: No matter how many modifiers a prepositionalphrase may contain, the phrase itself always acts as a

unit which modifies some other word. For now, stop looking atwhat's inside the phrase and examine instead how the wholephrase works as a modifier.

Completers and Modifiers: Combining SentencesA subject + verb may take more than one completer.Completers may be compounded by the conjunctions and, but,yet, or, nor:

Every 15,000 miles, youshould change the oil and theoil filter in your car.

A word may take more than one modifier.

Sometimes modifiers simply pile up near the word they modify:

Youmay needan adjustable long-handled filterwrench [with aswivel joint].

At other times, modifiers are connected by the same

conjunctions that create compound subjects, verbs, andcompleters--and, but, yet, or, nor:However, [without tools] but [with a strong bare-handedgrip] youcan unscrew the filter simplyand quickly.


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Embedded ThoughtsSome groups of words that look likesentences are really dependentclauses. Some words that look like

verbs are really verbals. Adependent clause or a verbal phrasemay express a thought that is notable to stand on its own but hasbecome embedded in a largersentence structure. Understandinghow thoughts become embeddedwill help you to combine ideas anddiscover relationships among them

through your writing.

In Chapter 5, you will learn that:

a clause is a group of relatedwords containing a subject +verb.

an independent clause is aclause that can stand by itself as a complete sentence(Everyone can write).

a dependent clause is a clause that has given up itsindependence and can no longer stand by itself (thateveryone can write) .

a phrase is a group of related words that does not containa subject + verb combination. (in spite of your writing).

a verbal is a verb form that has lost its power to play therole of verb in a sentence (to write; writing; written).

a verbal phrase is a group of words containing a verbal andthe verbal's completers or modifiers (to write a clear

essay). sentences can be combined by embedding clauses or

verbals. sentences can be combined by compounding clauses or

verbals.

Embedded Thoughts: Writing

Inside This ChapterBegin here to navigate through eachsection.

1. Your Writing: Describing and

Explaining a Pet Peeve

2. From Independent to

Dependent Clause3. Recognizing Dependent

Clauses

4. From Verb to Verbal

5. Recognizing Verbal Phrases6. Combining Sentences by

Embedding Thoughts

7. Combining Sentences by

Compounding Embedded

Thoughts8. Review & Practice:Part

1andPart 2

9. Fun With Grammar: The

Champion Verbalizer10.Return to Your Writing

11.Mastery Test on Embedded

Thoughts
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Think about something that irritates you (for example: yourneighbor's radio playing at 2:00 A.M., the way a relative givesyou advice you don't ask for, the smell of peanut butter cookies,the way your roommate leaves the milk on the table to spoil . ..). How do you respond to that irritation and why? What wouldyou like to do about it? On scrap paper, use freewriting orclustering to jot down everything you can think of about theirritation you've chosen.

1.Rearrange what you've written into one paragraph,selecting the details that you feel the most stronglyabout. Start your first sentence with the words "Ihate . . . ," and write a short paragraph about this petpeeve.

2.Look through your paragraph and put asterisks (*)after any of the following words: because, unless, if,while, until, which. Then put an asterisk after anyverb form ending in -ing without an auxiliary in front,or any verb form with the word to in front. Thesewords probably begin embedded thoughts.

If your teacher or study group would like you to develop thisexercise into a longer descriptive paragraph, please revise it

double-spaced on a fresh piece of paper, a word processor, or aclass bulletin board.

Embedded Thoughts: From Independent toDependent Clause

A clauseis a group of words that contains a subject + verb.An independent clausecan stand alone as a complete sentence.

A clause beginning with a dependent wordcannot stand alonebut must be embeddedin another sentence.


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These are the most common dependent words:

Dependent Wordsafter than where

although that whether

as though which

because unless whichever

before until while

how what who(m)

if whatever whoever

since when whose

why

Here is an independent clause that can stand alone as acomplete sentence:

Marriageis old-fashioned.Watch what happens when a dependent word introduces thisclause:although marriageis old-fashionedThe clause still has a subject and verb, but the addition of thedependent wordalthoughmakes the clause unable to standalone. The word althoughdoes something elseit prepares thenewly dependent clause for embedding in some other sentence:{Although* marriageis old-fashioned}, I'm getting married inthe morning.The word althoughshows the relationship between the twoclauses as it embeds one into the other. Other dependent wordsshow different relationships between clauses:

{Because* marriage is old-fashioned}, I'm going to live withoutit.

Cindy is always arguing {that* marriage is old-fashioned}.

Notice the comma in the first sentence, where a dependentclause comes at the beginning of a sentence.


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Embedded Thoughts: Recognizing DependentClausesAny clause introduced by a dependent word has been deprivedof its independence and can function only by playing a role in alarger sentence.A dependent word does two things: it turns an independent

clause into a dependent clause, and it defines a role for thatclause to play within a larger sentence:

Zora Neal Hurston was writing during the Harlem Renaissance.She may not have realized something.

Her novel about Janie Starks would become an American classic.The addition of dependent words to the first and last sentencesabove turns them into dependent clauses (see below). Thedependent words will also define the roles that the two newlydependent clauses play in a larger sentence:{While* Zora Neale Hurston was writing during the HarlemRenaissance}, shemay not have realized {that* her novelabout Janie Starks would become an American classic}.The independent clause of this new sentence is

"shemay not have realized." It could stand alone as a sentenceif you wanted it to, but you might ask "She may not haverealized what?" The answer would be a completer: "{that* hernovel about Janie Starks would become an American classic}."And you might ask "When didn't she realize this?" The answerwould be a modifier: "{While* Zora Neale Hurston was writingduring the Harlem Renaissance}." Both the completer and themodifier are clauses (they each contain a subject and verb andrelated words), but they begin with dependent words, so they

can't stand alone; they must be embedded in a larger sentencewhich includes an independent clause.

You can think of an embedded clause as a unit within anothersentence, a unit that acts in the same way that a single wordmight act when it plays a role in a sentence:


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Edenunderstandsmythoughts. (Subject, verb, noun completer)Edenunderstands {how I think}. (Subject, verb, clausecompleter)

She'll cometonight. (Subject, verb, single-word modifier)She'll come {before I even call}. (Subject, verb, clausemodifier)

Application 2 Application 3Often several dependent clauses may be embedded in a singlesentence.{After Jan earned eight days of vacation time}, she took herhandicapped nephew to Cinnamon Bay {because he loved to

swim}. (modifiers, "When?" and "Why?")

{When evening came}, she would cook {whatever he wanted}on the little camp stove {that came with their rented tent}. (twomodifiers, "When?" and "Which?", and one completer, "Shewould cook what?")

Application 4 Application 5Because a dependent clause contains a subject and a verb, itmay look like a sentence. Sometimes a dependent clause iseven longer than the independent clause in which it isembedded. A dependent clause, though, is not able to standalone as a sentence.
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Embedded Thoughts: From Verb to VerbalA verb may become a verbal, ready forembedding, by the addition of the word to orby the loss of an auxiliary.In each set of sentences below, the verb inthe first sentence has become a verbal in thelast one.

Emily takes out the garbage.Emily wants to take* out the garbage.A full moon was glowing. The snow magnified its light.The snow magnified the light of the glowing* full moon.Emily had discarded a letter. In the moonlight, she couldread the address on the letter.In the moonlight, Emily could read the address on herdiscarded* letter.

Each set of sentences above illustrates a different kind of verbal.We'll look at the three kinds one at a time.

First kind of verbal: To + [base form of verb]This is called an infinitive.An infinitive may play several sentence roles:

To twitch* at the moment of falling asleep is perfectly natural.(subject, "What is?")

Some people try to control* this motion. (completer, "People trywhat?")

They lie on their stomachs to suppress* the twitch. (modifier,"Why?")

An infinitive never acts as the verb of a sentence.
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Second kind of verbal: [base form of verb] + -ing with noauxiliary in frontThis is called a present participle, or in some cases, a gerund.The present participle, when it stands without an auxiliary, mayplay the role of modifier:

Willie Loman was a traveling* salesman. ("What kind?")Sometimes the same verb form is used in one of the roles that anoun could play. Then it is called a gerund:

Losing* his job pushed him beyond the brink of sanity. (subject,"What pushed?")

People focus on some basic elements of the American characterby reading* Death of a Salesman. (object of the preposition by)

Whether the -ingform acts as a modifier or plays a noun's role,if it is not preceded by a form of the auxiliary to be, it cannotwork as the verb of its sentence.

Third kind of verbal: [past participle of verb] with no auxiliary infrontA past participle, standing alone without an auxiliary, plays therole of modifier:

Ghandi's chosen* strategy of non-violent protest had its roots inChristian as well as Hindu doctrines. ("Which strategy?")

Educated* in Britain, this young lawyer saw the connectionsbetween his own Indian traditions and the highest ideals ofWestern civilization. ("What kind of lawyer?")

Remember that with regular verbs, the simple past and the pastparticiple forms look exactly alike, but that with irregular verbsthe two forms may be different. (SeeChapter 2.)
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Embedded Thoughts: Recognizing Verbal

Phrases

A verbal phrase is a verbal plus its completers and modifiers.Like the verb it came from, a verbal may take a completer andmodifiers.

Boiling* uses up more energy than frying* does. (verbals standalone, without phrases)

{Boiling* eggs} uses up more energy than {frying* them}does. (verbals take completers, creating verbal phrases)

{Boiling* an egg in the winter} will heat your kitchen a bit.(verbal takes a completer and modifier, creating a verbalphrase)

An embedded verbal phrase functions as a unit, acting the waya single word might to play a single role in a larger sentence:The wateris wonderful. (noun subject, verb, completer){Swimming* in your pool}is wonderful. (verbal phrase subject,verb, completer)

I'm expecting friends. (subject, verb, noun completer)I'm expecting {to see* my friends}. (subject, verb, verbalphrase completer)

Because a verbal comes from a verb, it behaves like a verb inseveral ways. It can take a completer and modifiers. It can alsoexpress time and imply action. But a verbal cannot be the verbof a sentence.

CHOICE BETWEEN PARTICIPLESThe two participle forms convey different meanings, andchoosing between them requires you to think about thedifference between active and passive.


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Participles Explanations ExamplesPresentparticiple(_____-ing)

Embedded form ofan active progressiveverb.Describes an agentthat causessomething, or athing in an ongoingprocess.

The movie WAS BORINGher.It was a boringmovie.(The movie was causingher response.)This dog IS TEARING myskirt.I hate the soundoftearingcloth. (Thecloth is in the process ofthe action.)

Past

participle(_____-edorirregularending)

Embedded form of a

passive verb.Describes a receiverof an effect orprocess.

She WAS BORED by that

movie.Boredand lonely, sheleft early. (She hasreceived the effect of themovie.)My skirt IS BEING TORNby this dog.Look at the tornanddirty cloth. (The clothhad received the processof the dog's bite.)

For some verbs, it can be difficult to choose between the activeand passive participles. Practice using the following participlesas modifiers in sentences of your own, and get a native English-speaking friend to check your sentences:

amusing amused

boring bored

confusing confused

embarrassing embarrassed

exciting excited

interesting interested


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knowing known

surprising surprised

understanding understood

worrying worried

Embedded Thoughts: Combining Sentences byEmbedding ThoughtsSeveral separate sentences may combine into a more complexsentence when one clause keeps its independence and theothers are embedded into it as dependent clauses.Separate sentences:

Lobbyists are paid by many private and public organizations.The organizations raise money from people.The people want their opinions to be taken seriously on CapitolHill.

Combined:Lobbyists are paid by many private and public organizations{that raise money from people} {who want their opinions to betaken seriously on Capitol Hill}.

Application 10Several separate sentences can be combined into a morecomplex sentence when the verb in one keeps its full powersand the verbs in the others become embedded verbals.Separate sentences:
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Recent polls show public concern about the influence of moneyin politics.Public concern is rapidly rising.U.S citizens spent $49 million on lobbyists in 1985.The citizens were trying to sway congressional votes.

Separate sentences combined:Recent polls show {rapidly rising} public concern about theinfluence of money in politics.{Trying to influence congressional votes}, U.S. citizens spent$49 million on lobbyists in 1985.

Embedded Thoughts: Combining Sentences byCompounding Embedded ThoughtsSeveral embedded thoughts may be compounded in a singlesentence.Judy thought {that the professor would have left} but {that thestudents would still be in the room}.Since subjects, completers, and modifiers can be compounded,embedded thoughts that play these sentence roles can also becompounded by the conjunctions and, but, yet, or, nor.

Remember that when two or more sentence parts of the sametype are compounded, the conjunction usually appears betweenonly the last two, and the others are separated by commas.

Separate sentences with embedded subjects:

{Popping huge gum bubbles} was Judy's specialty.{Making dramatic entrances} to class was her specialty, too.

Separate sentences with embedded modifiers:

Today she popped one bubble too many and found herself faceto facewith a {gum-spattered} Professor Scianna.This was an {astonished} person.This was an {infuriated} person.{Not blushing a bit}, Judy shook his hand with great dignity.{Not cracking a smile}, Judy did this.


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Combinations:{Popping huge gum bubbles} and {making dramatic entrancesin class} were Judy's specialties.

Today she popped one bubble too many and found herself faceto face with a {gum-spattered}, {astonished}, and {infuriated}Professor Scianna.

{Neither blushing a bit} nor {cracking a smile}, Judy shook hishand with great dignity.


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Capitalization and

Punctuation

Writers use punctuation marks andcapital letters to help readersinterpret the structure of theirsentences. Each mark has at leastone purpose, and some haveseveral, but no mark is ever usedwithout a good reason.

Chapter 6 will help you understand

when to use:

capital letters. periods. question marks. exclamation points. commas.

colons. semicolons. quotation marks. parentheses.

Capitalization and Punctuation: Observation ofWriting

For this part of Chapter Six, firstclick here toopen the paragraphs in a new browser window.Next print out the new window. Once you have

printed out the paragraphs, you can close theother window.

Read the story you have printed out, circling allthe capital letters and punctuation marks. Besure you find each of the following marks:

Inside this ChapterBegin here to navigate through eachsection.

1. Observation of Writing

2. Capital Letters

3. Period4. Question Mark

5. Exclamation Point

6. Comma

7. Colon8. Semicolon

9. Quotation Marks

10.Parentheses

11.Review & Practice

12.Fun With Grammar: Poetic

License13.Return to Observation of

Writing

14.Mastery Test onCapitalization and

Punctuation
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. period? question mark! exclamation point, comma; semicolon: colon" " quotation marks( ) parentheses

Capitalization and Punctuation: Capital Letters

Every sentence begins with a capital letter. A penny saved is a penny earned.

People who live in glass houses shouldn't throwstones.

A proper noun begins with a capital letter. A proper noun names a specific person, place, or

thing. Proper nouns include people's names, titles,brand names, languages and nationalities, and thenames of days and months (but not seasons). Forexample:

Common noun Proper nounwoman Damaris

son Julius

my uncle Uncle Ernie

college president President Bliss

a new detergent Cloud Puff

my accounting class Accounting 243

studying a language studying Spanish

holiday Thanksgiving

month June

The pronoun I is always spelled as a capital letter. When I think of traveling, I always wish I could go to

Borneo.


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A capital letter begins the first, last, and anyimportant word in the title of a book, magazinearticle, story, poem, movie, or other work. Have you read Paul Hoch's analysis of football, Rip Off

the Big Game? Use capital letters only when you have a good reason

to do so.

Capitalization and Punctuation: Period

A complete sentence which makes a statement endswith a period. It's your turn now. Take a deep breath and blow. Most abbreviations end with a period. Dr. Williams will meet you at the Oak St. office.

Capitalization and Punctuation: QuestionMark

A question ends with a question mark. Have you been eating again? Does the coach know? NOTE: With indirect questions"The teacher asked

Gesualdo if he had done the homework."we do notuse question marks. Clickhere for a one-pagesummary on indirect questions and reported speech.

Capitalization and Punctuation:

Exclamation Point A statement expressing unusual emphasis or greatexcitement may end with an exclamation point. You've been eating again! I'm telling the coach! This mark is not used often. Usually a writer can

express emphasis through the choice of words, usinginformation to support an idea rather than relying on
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an exclamation point to create a general sense ofhigh emotion. In writing, exclamation points are usedprimarily for conveying the tone of informalconversations.

Capitalization and Punctuation: CommaA comma marks the breaks between items in a series.They teased, begged, and flattered until I gave in.Remember that when more than two items are compounded,the conjunction comes between the last two, and commasseparate the others:They appealed to my pride, to my faith in them, and to mygenerous instincts.

Application 5A comma comes before the conjunction that compoundsindependent clauses.They joked around at my door, and then they won me over.The girls told me what good drivers they were, but the boysconcentrated on washing the car windows.

Application 6A comma marks the end of an introductory modifying phrase orclause.Since they'd waited all day, I couldn't refuse.After all, I owed them a favor.Note that when a modifying clause comes after the independent

clause, no comma is necessary:I was laughing to myself while they were talking to me.BUTWhile they were talking to me, I was laughing to myself.A transitional expression at the beginning of a clause will beseparated from the rest of the clause by a comma. In the
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sentences below,finallyand thereforeare transitionalexpressions.Finally, the water began to boil.Nobody noticed it for five minutes; therefore, several ouncesevaporated.

Application 7A comma separates an interruption from the rest of a sentence.An interrruption is any word or group of words that interrupts oris added to a sentence to offer extra information. It can be awhole clause:

Marcel, who was the oldest, was a charmer.The interruption can be a phrase:What they wanted, of course, was to borrow my car.Sometimes the interruption is merely a word:Yes, I did it again, honey. I loaned them the new car and thekeys, too.

Application 8A comma separates quoted words from the rest of a sentence."You deserve your great reputation for kindness," Marceldeclared. I blushed and replied, "Enough sweet talk. Be back byfive."Notice that the first word of each quoted sentence is capitalized,even though, in the case of the last one, the markbefore enoughis a comma rather than a period. This is because

the words being quoted create a sentence within a sentence.

Application 9
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A comma separates items in an address or date.Come celebrate with us at 24 Morrill Avenue, Waterville, Maineon Monday, June 18, 2002.

Application 10Summary of Comma use

Use a Comma to mark the breaks between the items in a series. before the conjunction that compounds independent clauses.

to mark the end of an introductory modifying phrase or clause.

to separate an interruption from the rest of a sentence. to separate quoted words from the rest of a sentence. to separate items in an address or date.

Capitalization and Punctuation: Colon

A colon shows the reader that a list or an explanation follows.Here's what I want you to do: grab my bag, warm up the car,and take me to the station.There's one thing about you that makes me mad: the way youlose track of time when you work in the garden.

Capitalization and Punctuation: SemicolonA semicolon compounds two independent clauses without aconjunction.Come with me; you'll be glad you did.

There must be something I can do; I've been sitting here for anhour.A semicolon compounds two independent clauses where thesecond clause begins with a transitional expression. In thesentences below, furthermore andhowever are transitionalexpressions.
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I'll show you the sights of my childhood; furthermore, we'll visitthe alley where I learned to skate.I thought we'd said enough about that; however, the look onyour face tells me that you have something more to say.Notice that a comma follows the transitional expression in thesentences above.

For more on transitional expressions (also known as adverbialconjuctions), see the section onAvoiding Run-on Sentencesandthe section inChapter 16 on Transitional Expressions.A semicolon separates items in a series when the items alreadycontain commas.As program director, she had several responsibilities: planning,budgeting, contracting, and hiring staff for the summerprojects; managing the projects and supervising the staff; andat the end of the summer, closing the offices, distributingremaining funds to agency departments, and writing finalreports.

Capitalization and Punctuation:

QuotationQuotation marks identify the exact words of aspeaker.Sheba was whispering, "Not that way; turnleft.""I know what I'm doing," Joan snapped.Do not use quotation marks simply foremphasis; that's what underlining is for:This is your laundromat; please keep it clean.

not

This is "your" laundromat; please keep it "clean."

Quotation marks identify the title of a story, poem, or othershort work.
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The first-person point of view in "The Lesson" blends humor withsocial commentary. The narration is entirely different in "Guestsof the Nation."

The title of a long work (such as a book or movie or play) shouldbe writiten initalics.The title of a part (such as a story or a chapter or an article in ajournal) should be in quotation marks:

Vanessa Redgrave and Jane Fonda starred in Julia, the moviebased on "Julia," a chapter in Pentimento, Lilian Hellman'sautobiography.

If you are using a typewriter that is not capable of creating

italicized type or if you are writing by hand, underline whatwould otherwise appear in italics.

Julia(in publication or word-processing) = Julia (handwritten orusing an old-fashioned typewriter)

We do not use quotation marks to set off language inthe form of "indirect" or "reported" speech. The teacher said, "Take care of your computer

diskette." (The words in quotation marks are directspeech, the exact words that someone spoke.)

The teacher told him to take care of his computerdiskette. (The teacher's exact words are not includedhere, so this is indirector reportedspeech, and needsno quotation marks.

Clickherefor a one-page chart on the uses of reported speech.

Application 15
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Capitalization and Punctuation: ParenthesesParentheses set off information that is not essential to thesentence.The price was low ($3.50), so I didn't mind paying.Any extra information is an interruption (seecommas), butparentheses are useful when the interruption is too long to beset off with commas, or when the writer wants to separate theinformation from the rest of the sentence more completely thanwould be possible with commas. The interruption may be aphrase:I didn't go anywhere (except to the mailbox) until noon.Sometimes the interruption is a whole sentence:

The roads (you'll be delighted to hear this) were completely dryby then.

Quotation marks and parentheses always come in sets. Whenyou mark the start of a quotation, the reader imagines a newvoice entering. That new voice continues until you mark the endof the quotation. When you mark the start of a parentheticalinterruption, the reader will be looking for the end in order to

see where the main sentence picks up again. Don't leave thereader hanging with only one half of either set.

TIP FOR ESL STUDENTS:Click on the ESL icon at left to visit"Question and Quotation Marks" for

help recognizing the form and placement ofthese marks in English. Practice these formswith a teacher or tutor.

QUESTION MARK AND QUOTATION MARKS

Application 16 Application 17
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Languages differ in the way they punctuate sentences, and theuse of question marks and quotation marks in English can causeparticular confusion.

Mark Rule Examplesquestionmark

Put it at the end of thequestion only.Do not put one at thebeginning.

Do you understand?How does the verb helpus to know that this is aquestion?

quotationmarks

Put them above theline, on both sides ofthe words being

quoted, curling inwardto enclose the quote.Do not forget the setat the end of thequotation.

"Look," she said. "Theseare different marks fromthe ones that are used in

several European andLatin languages."

"Oh, I see," answered thestudent.


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Combining SentencesBefore leaving the study of sentencestructure behind, this chapter offersa summary of the sentence

combining patterns you've learnedthroughout Part One. These are:

compounding sentenceparts

embedding clauses embedding verbals and

verbal phrases compounding whole

sentences.

Combining Sentences: Your Writing

1. How many of the words on the magnet board (below) can you fit into onesentence? (In the first, random pile of words, some words may be stacked ontop of each other; quickly rearrange them until you can see all the words.)Work with one or two partners and try different arrangements until yourphrases and clauses fit together to make sense. After three minutes,compare your work with what other students are doing and borrow theirideas to help with your sentence. You will find doubles for the words "the,""your," and "in."

2. Spend at least five minutes playing with the possibilities before you look atthe answer provided by the computer (in the pulldown menu below themagnet board).

Inside this ChapterBegin here to navigate through eachsection.

1. Your Writing

2. Compounding Whole

Sentences3. Sentence Combining

Summary

4. Mixing Methods to Combine

Sentences5. Review and Practice

6. Fun With

Grammar: Patchwork

7. Return to Your Writing

8. Mastery Test on Combining

Sentences
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Combining Sentences: Compounding Whole

Sentences

Just as similar sentence parts may be compounded, wholesentences also may be compounded.Remember that subjects may be compounded with othersubjects, modifiers with other modifiers, and so on. In the sameway, one whole sentence may be compounded with anotherwhole sentence by a conjunction (and, but, yet, or, nor). Whenyou are compounding whole sentences, two other conjunctionscome into play: forand so. When you compound wholesentences, a comma before the conjunction marks the placewhere one clause ends and the next begins. When more than

two sentences are compounded, the conjunction usually appearsbetween only the last two, while the others are separated bycommas.

Combining Sentences: Sentence Combining

SummaryYou can combine

grammar resumen

Documents