manual instructivo para el levantamiento de suelos aplicados para la macro, meso y micro...
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8/12/2019 Manual Instructivo para el Levantamiento de Suelos aplicados para la Macro, Meso y Micro Zonificacin Ecolgica
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UFQV GBHOGGBHB\[FQB@ KFD OGABFH[F
15?5
GOHVOD BH\[QVL[BZ@ UOQO FD
DFZOH[OGBFH[@ KF \VFD@\ FH
AO\F OD FHJ@_VF [FQQB[@QBODUOQO D@\ UQ@LF\@\ KF GOLQ@,
GF\@ R GBLQ@ S@HBJBLOLB@H
FL@D@NBLO FL@H@GBLO
Kbrfllbh Nfhfrod kf @rkfhogbfht` [frrbt`rbod
Lfhtrod [fdfjhblo3 (+6??) :?? :555 | Dhfo nrotubto3 5=55 -55- ::5 | Jox :?? :555 ohfx` ?:
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rfsfhtolbh
Fd fstukb` kf sufd`, l`g` portf kf do fvoduolbh kfd gfkb` jsbl`,
opdblok` kfhtr` kf do S`hbjblolbh Fl`dnblo y Fl`hgblo fsto
pfrgbtbfhk` fstoadflfr d`s us`s p`sbadfs kfd sufd`, yo sfo l`g`
uhbkok fl`dnblo ` l`g` aosf poro fd fstoadflbgbfht` kf pr`yflt`s
kf kfsorr`dd`, kohk` o l`h`lfr sus dbgbtolb`hfs, us` okfluok`, rolb`hod y
s`stfhbk`, sfnh sus loroltfrstblos pfk`nfhtblos, fkjblos y fl`dnblos,
rfkulbfhk` y/` fvbtohk` su kfnrokolbh l`g` gfkb` hoturod, ab`pr`kult`r `
jufhtf odbgfhtorbo.
L`g` rfspufsto o do hflfsbkok kf fstohkorbzor do nfhfrolbh kf kot`s f
bhj`rgolbh fh l`hl`rkohlbo l`h do l`afrturo fspolbod, dgbtfs nf`nrjbl`s, fslodoy togo` kf gufstro, sfnh d`s hbvfdfs kf fstukb` kf do z`hbjblolbh, y o su vfz
jolbdbtor fd troaoc` o dos bhstbtulb`hfs bhv`dulrokos fh fstf pr`lfs`, fd Gbhbstfrb` kfd
Ogabfhtf, rflt`r kfd sflt`r ogabfhtod, fhlornok` kf fstoadflfr do p`dtblo,
lrbtfrb`s, mfrrogbfhtos y pr`lfkbgbfht`s, poro rolb`hodbzor dos bhtfrvfhlb`hfs
s`arf fd tfrrbt`rb` y `rbfhtor su l`hsfrvolbh y opr`vflmogbfht` s`stfhbadf, vbfhf
fdoa`rohk` fd gohuod bhstrultbv` poro fd dfvohtogbfht` kf sufd`, fh aosf od
fhj`quf kf @rkfhogbfht` [frrbt`rbod.
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htr`kullbh
O portbr kfd gorl` h`rgotbv` kfd K. D. H ?5?-155;/ULG quf
oprufao fd Qfndogfht` kf SFF, fh su Ortlud` ?? gfhlb`ho quf, fd GBHOG fh su
l`hkblbh kf Out`rbkok Ogabfhtod Holb`hod, kbrbnf fd pr`lfs` kf do nfstbh kf SFF
fh fd pos, gbfhtros fd K.\. H 55>-155=-GBHOG, fh su ortlud` , Bhlbs` l,
fstoadflf quf kfhtr` kf dos juhlb`hfs kf do Kbrfllbh Nfhfrod kf @rkfhogbfht`
[frrbt`rbod, kfaf l`hkulbr y `rbfhtor d`s pr`lfs`s kf SFF, os l`g` do fdoa`rolbh
kf fstukb`s fspflbodbzok`s.
Aoc` fsto pfrspfltbvo do KN@[, mo kfsorr`ddok` fd Gohuod Bhstrultbv` poro fd
Dfvohtogbfht` kf \ufd`s opdblok`s poro do Golr`, Gfs` y Gblr` S`hbjblolbhFl`dnblo y Fl`hgblo fh aosf od fhj`quf tfrrbt`rbod, pfrgbtbfhk` fvoduor do `jfrto
kfd tfrrbt`rb`, aosok`s fh do kfgohko kf us` kf d`s fspolb`s nf`nrjbl`s y sus
rflurs`s, jrfhtf o do `lupolbh kfd tfrrbt`rb`, p`r portf kf d`s kbjfrfhtfs olt`rfs
s`lbodfs, fs om k`hkf fd fstukb` kf sufd` lugpdf uh popfd juhkogfhtod pufs
pr`pblbo fd us` okfluok` kf fst`s fspolb`s fh juhlbh o sus vfrkokfros
p`tfhlbodbkokfs y dbgbtolb`hfs, os l`g` do `lupolbh `rkfhoko kfd tfrrbt`rb`,
rfsnuorkohk` do lopolbkok kf rfsbdbfhlbo kfd sufd`, poro osfnuror su lodbkok l`g`
pr`kult`r kf ab`goso9 l`g` rfolt`r l`h jbdtr`s9 l`g` aujjfr, l`g` trohsj`rgok`r
kf gotfrbo poro pr`tfnfr fd ogabfhtf, fd onuo suatfrrhfo y do lokfho kf odbgfht`skf do l`htogbholbh9 l`g` mabtot ab`dnbl` y rfsfrvo nfhtblo9 l`g` gfkb` jsbl`
y jufhtf kf rflurs`s y kf mfrfhlbo ludturod (Adug y \ohtfdbsfs, ?22;)
Fd gohuod pfrgbtf fdoa`ror fd dfvohtogbfht` kf sufd` fstohkorbzokogfhtf,
kbvbkbko kf gohfro ortbludoko fh `lm` loptud`s, oaorlohk` kfskf do l`hjfllbh kfd
gopo aosf, lrbtfrb`s poro bkfhtbjblor dos uhbkokfs kf gufstrf` kfd sufd`, l`h su
rfprfsfhtolbh fh uho lorto fkjblo, os l`g` kftfrgbhor do kfhsbkok kf gufstrf`
quf pfrgbto do rfprfsfhtolbh y loroltfrbzolbh kf do uhbkok o fvoduor,
l`hsbkfrohk` dos fslodos, gotfrbodfs lort`nrjbl`s ` bgnfhfs sotfdbtodfs, mosto do
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bhtfrprftolbh fstohkorbzoko kf d`s pfrjbdfs g`kodfs y fslodos jbhodfs kf
puadblolbh, fh l`hl`rkohlbo l`h d`s hbvfdfs fstoadflbk`s kf do SFF.
OAQFZBO[VQO\
B\QBL
KN@[
BHNFGGF[
@[
@O[
\BN
SFF
GBHOG
JO@
\BL\ / B\\\
VBL\ / BV\\
V\KO
^QA
Lfhtr` Bhtfrholb`hod kf Bhj`rgolbh y Qfjfrfhlbo fh \ufd`s
Kbrfllbh Nfhfrod kf @rkfhogbfht` [frrbt`rbod.
Bhstbtut` Nf`dnbl`, Gbhfr` y Gftodrnbl`
@rkfhogbfht` [frrbt`rbod.
@rkfhogbfht` Ogabfhtod [frrbt`rbod.
\bstfgos kf Bhj`rgolbh Nf`nrjblo.
S`hbjblolbh Fl`dnblo y Fl`hgblo.
Gbhbstfrb` kfd Ogabfhtf.
@rnohbzolbh kf dos Holb`hfs Vhbkos poro do Onrbludturo y do
Odbgfhtolbh.
\`lbfkok Bhtfrholb`hod kf dos Lbfhlbos kfd \ufd`
Vhbh Bhtfrholb`hod kf do Lbfhlbo kfd \ufd`
Kfportogfht` kf Onrbludturo kf d`s Fstok`s Vhbk`sAosf Qfjfrfhlbod Guhkbod kfd Qflurs` \ufd`.
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H K B L F
?. LOUB[VD@ B3 H@QGO[BZOUOQOF\[OADFLFQFDF\[VKB@KF\VFD@FHD@\
KBJFQFH[F\HBZFDF\KFDOSFF
?.?.Golr`z`hbjblolbh.?.1.Gfs`z`hbjblolbh.?.
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;. LOUB[VD@ BZ3 UDOHBJBLOLBH KFD UQ@LF\@ KF GVF\[QF@ FH LOGU@
;.?.Uos`s kf do pdohbjblolbh.;.1.Gotfrbodfs, mfrrogbfhtos y fqubp` kf sfnurbkok.
6. LOUB[VD@ BZ3 F\[VKB@ G@QJ@DNBL@ KFD \VFD@
6.?.L`hjfllbh kf do lodbloto6.1.Dflturo kf pfrjbdfs6.. LOUB[VD@ ZB3 BH\[QVGFH[@\ KF LDO\BJBLOLBH KF \VFD@\>.?.\`bd [ox`h`gy
>.1.JO@>..;.Fqubvodfhlbos
OHF]@\Nd`sorb` kf [rgbh`s
ABADB@NQOJO
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DB\[O KF LVOKQ@\
Luokr` H ?3Luokr` H 13Luokr` H 3Luokr` H =3Luokr` H 23
Luokr` H ?53Luokr` H ??3Luokr` H ?13Luokr` H ?3
Luokr` H ?=3Luokr` H ?23
Luokr` H 153Luokr` H 1?3Luokr` H 113Luokr` H 13Luokr` H 1=3Luokr` H 123Luokr` H
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DB\[O KF JBNVQO\
Jbnuro H ?3Jbnuro H 13Jbnuro H 3Jbnuro H =3Jbnuro H 23Jbnuro H ?53Jbnuro H ??3
Fdfgfht`s kf vfrbjblolbh kf do j`t` orfo@atfhlbh kf bhj`rgolbh o portbr kf dos j`t`nrojos orfos@atfhlbh kf bhj`rgolbh o portbr kf dos bgnfhfs sotfdbtodfs
Fdfgfht`s kf vfrbjblolbh kf do j`t` orfoHbvfdfs sflufhlbodfs kf do pfrlfplbh kf d`s tbp`s kf nf`j`rgos y susl`gp`hfhtfsQfdolbh kf lopos tfgtblos fh do bkfhtbjblolbh kf rfos kf gufstrf` kfsufd`[ogo` kf gufstro sbh lrbtfrb`s kf kfhsbjblolbh[ogo` kf gufstro aosok` fh uhbkokfs jbsb`nrjblos[rosdopf kf bhj`rgolbhBhtfrp`dolbh kf bhj`rgolbh[oado Gohsfdd
DB\[O KF OHF]@\
Ohfx` H ?3Ohfx` H 13
Nd`sorb` kf trgbh`sJblmo tlhblo kf fvoduolbh kfd sufd`
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LOUB[VD@
H@QGO[BZO UOQO F\[OADFLFQ FD F\[VKB@ KF \VFD@ FH D@\
KBJFQFH[F\HBZFDF\KFDOSFF
Kf olufrk` od Kflrft` kfd L`hsfc` Kbrfltbv`, H 5?5-155:-L@HOG/LK,Gft`k`d`no poro do S`hbjblolbh Fl`dnblo Fl`hgblo, do opdblolbh kf fsto
gft`k`d`no fs `adbnot`rbo kfhtr` kf d`s kbjfrfhtfs hbvfdfs kf n`abfrh`,
bhstbtulb`hfs y `rnohbzolb`hfs tlhblos y olokgblos kfd sflt`r padbl` y
prbvok` fh d`s gabt`s holb`hod, rfnb`hod y d`lod, lotod`nok`s l`g`
rfsp`hsoadfs ` portblbpohtfs kf fstf pr`lfs`. O su vfz tbfhf p`r jbhodbkok
kfjbhbr d`s dbhfogbfht`s fspfljbl`s poro do nfstbh kf su kfsorr`dd`9 prflbsor
odlohlfs fh d`s kbvfrs`s hbvfdfs kf olfrlogbfht` fspolbod (golr`, gfs` y
gblr`z`hbjblolbh)9 org`hbzor lrbtfrb`s, pos`s y l`htfhbk`s fh dos kbstbhtos
ftopos kf su pr`lfs` y fh d`s kbjfrfhtfs hbvfdfs fspolbodfs.
Fd kfsorr`dd` kf do SFF t`go fh lufhto dos loroltfrstblos portbludorfs kf dolbrluhslrbplbh fh do quf sf opdblo, l`hsbkfro do kbgfhsbh, hoturodfzo u`acftbv`s pdohtfok`s sfnh d`s hbvfdfs fspolbodfs, poro j`rgudor y/` oltuodbzordos p`dtblos y pdohfs kf `rkfhogbfht` y/` kf ol`hkblb`hogbfht` tfrrbt`rbod, `kf dos p`dtblos y pdohfs kf kfsorr`dd`. Gbfhtros quf poro do fcflulbh kf lokojosf, fstoadflf d`s pr`lfkbgbfht`s hflfsorb`s poro do j`rgudolbh kf dopr`pufsto, sfodohk` d`s rfqufrbgbfht`s kf bhj`rgolbh tfgtblo ylort`nrjblo, hbvfdfs kf portblbpolbh kf do p`adolbh, mfrrogbfhtosbhj`rgtblos y l`hj`rgolbh kf do L`gbsbh [lhblo, fhtrf `tr`s.
D`s hbvfdfs fspolbodfs fh d`s quf sf kfsorr`ddo do SFF, pfrgbtfh nfhfrorbhj`rgolbh fspfljblo s`arf dos p`tfhlbodbkokfs y dbgbtolb`hfs kf su gabt` kfbhtfrvfhlbh, fh rfdolbh o kbvfrsos odtfrhotbvos kf us` s`stfhbadf, qufp`stfrb`rgfhtf s`h do aosf poro kfjbhbr p`dtblos y pdohfs kf kfsorr`dd`, kf`rkfhogbfht` y/` ol`hkblb`hogbfht` tfrrbt`rbod. Fst`s hbvfdfs h` sf dbgbtoh ol`hsbkfrolb`hfs kf do fxtfhsbh supfrjblbod kf d`s gabt`s p`dtbl`sokgbhbstrotbv`s (quf fh fd tfrrbt`rb` pfruoh` s`h aostohtfs kbjfrfhlbok`s), sbh`quf kfpfhkfh kfd hbvfd kf pr`juhkbkok kf d`s fstukb`s quf rfqubfrfh y do
jbhodbkok kf d`s gbsg`s.
B
D`s hbvfdfs
fspolbodfs kf
golr`, gfs` y
gblr`z`hbjblolbh
h` sf dbgbtoh o
l`hsbkfrolb`hfs
kf do fxtfhsbh
supfrjblbod kf d`s
gabt`s p`dtbl`s
okgbhbstrotbv`s,
sbh` quf
kfpfhkfh kfd
hbvfd kf
pr`juhkbkok kfd`s fstukb`s quf
rfqubfrfh y do
jbhodbkok kf d`s
gbsg`s.
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Os gbsg` fd Luokr` H 5?, fs uho okoptolbh kfd luokr` quf sf fhlufhtro fhfd Kflrft` kfd L`hsfc` Kbrfltbv`, H 5?5-155:-L@HOG/LK, fh fd quf sfsfodoh dos vorboadfs y otrbaut`s, quf moh kf sfr l`hsbkfrok`s o gohfro kfrfjfrfhlbo poro fd gfkb` jsbl`, fh d`s kbjfrfhtfs hbvfdfs tfrrbt`rbodfs.O l`htbhuolbh sf kfjbhf d`s trfs hbvfdfs fspolbodfs kf do SFF3
?.?. GOLQ@S@HBJBLOLBH
Do golr`z`hbjblolbh fs opdblok` o hbvfd holb`hod, golr`-rfnb`hod, rfnb`hod y ohbvfd kf pr`vbhlbos, lufhlos mbkr`nrjblos y `tr`s gabt`s fspolbodfs l`hsupfrjblbfs rfdotbvogfhtf nrohkfs, kfdbgbtohk` nrohkfs uhbkokfs fspolbodfsfh fd tfrrbt`rb`, kfjbhbk`s l`h lrbtfrb`s3 jsbl`s, ab`dnbl`s, s`lbodfs, fl`hgbl`sy ludturodfs. [ogabh pufkf sfr t`goko l`g` rfjfrfhlbo poro kfjbhbrprb`rbkokfs fspolbodfs fh d`s `tr`s hbvfdfs kf goy`r olfrlogbfht` fspolbod(gfs` y gblr`z`hbjblolbh).
Do lort`nrojo opdbloadf o d`s fstukb`s kfd gfkb` ab`jsbl` kf nrohkfsfl`sbstfgos y pobsocfs, l`rrfsp`hkf o uho fslodo kf troaoc` gfh`r ` bnuod o ?3165 555. Gbfhtros quf do bhj`rgolbh s`lb`fl`hgblo kfaf l`rrfsp`hkfr, p`rd` gfh`s o dos uhbkokfs fspolbodfs pr`vbhlbodfs ` kbstrbtodfs, sfnh dosloroltfrstblos kf loko tfrrbt`rb`.
Os togabh fd nrok` kf portblbpolbh o fstf hbvfd bhv`dulro dos kbvfrsosbhstbtulb`hfs padblos?y rfprfsfhtohtfs kf dos `rnohbzolb`hfs kf do s`lbfkoklbvbd1
kfabkogfhtf rfl`h`lbkos, vfr luokr` H ?.
?.1. GF\@S@HBJBLOLBH
Do gfs`z`hbjblolbh pufkf sfr opdbloko o hbvfd rfnb`hod, pr`vbhlbod y kbstrbtod, ohbvfd kf lufhlos mbkr`nrjblos y `tr`s gabt`s fspolbodfs l`h supfrjblbfsrfdotbvogfhtf h` guy nrohkfs, bhlduyfhk` fd rfo kf bhjdufhlbo kf z`hosgftr`p`dbtohos, kfdbgbtohk` uhbkokfs fspolbodfs kfd tfrrbt`rb` o sfgb kftoddf,l`h d`s gbsg`s lrbtfrb`s kf do golr`z`hbjblolbh. O su vfz fs gorl` kfrfjfrfhlbo poro kfjbhbr prb`rbkokfs fspolbodfs o hbvfd kf gblr`z`hbjblolbh.
Do opdblolbh lort`nrjblo poro d`s fstukb`s kfd gfkb` ab`jsbl` (nrohkfsfl`sbstfgos y pobsocfs) l`rrfsp`hkf o uho fslodo kf troaoc` goy`r ` bnuod o?3?55 555, luyos uhbkokfs fspolbodfs poro do bhj`rgolbh s`lb`fl`hgblokfafh l`rrfsp`hkfr o d`s kbstrbt`s ` gblr`lufhlos.
Fd nrok` kf portblbpolbh kfpfhkfr kf dos bhstbtulb`hfs padblos y prbvokosl`h oltuolbh kbrflto fh fd tfrrbt`rb` l`gpr`gftbk`, fh fspflbod d`s N`abfrh`sUr`vbhlbodfs y Kbstrbtodfs, dos bhstohlbos tfrrbt`rbodfs kfd N`abfrh` Qfnb`hod yKbrfllb`hfs \flt`rbodfs, @HNs, os`lbolbh kf pr`kult`rfs, l`guhbkokfs
?N`abfrh` Qfnb`hod, N`abfrh`s Ur`vbhlbodfs y Kbstrbtodfs, Kbrfllb`hfs \flt`rbodfs, fhtrf tr`s.1Ur`yflt`s Fspflbodfs, L`dfnb`s Ur`jfsb`hodfs, Nrfgb`s Fgprfsorbodfs, Gfkb`s kf l`guhblolbh, @HNs,Lgoro kf L`gfrlb`, Os`lbolbh kf Ur`kult`rfs, L`guhbkokfs Logpfsbhos f Bhknfhos, fhtrf tr`s
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logpfsbhos f bhknfhos, nrfgb`s fgprfsorbodfs, gfkb`s kf l`guhblolbh,fhtrf tr`s.
?.
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Luokr` H ?3ZOQBOADF\ R O[QBAV[@\ J\BL@\ UOQO DO KFJBHBLB@H KF DO SFF, \FNHHBZFDF\
GOLQ@S@HBJBLOLB@H GF\@S@HBJBLOLB@H GBLQ@S@HBJBLOLB@H
Ur`psbt`3Nfhfror bhj`rgolbh s`arf dos p`tfhlbodbkokfs y dbgbtolb`hfs kfd tfrrbt`rb`, fh rfdolbh o kbvfrsosodtfrhotbvos kf us` s`stfhbadf, quf sbrvo kf aosf poro kfjbhbr3
U`dtblos y pdohfs kfkfsorr`dd`, kf`rkfhogbfht` y/`ol`hkblb`hogbfht`tfrrbt`rbod fh d`s gabt`ssfodok`s.
L`afrturo fspolbod3Urbhlbpodgfhtf fh gabt`sholb`hod, golr`rfnb`hod yrfnb`hod
U`dtblos y pdohfs kfkfsorr`dd`, kf`rkfhogbfht` y/`ol`hkblb`hogbfht`tfrrbt`rbod,
Do bkfhtbjblolbh ypr`g`lbh kf pr`yflt`s kfkfsorr`dd` fh d`s gabt`ssfodok`s.
L`afrturo fspolbod3Urbhlbpodgfhtf fh gabt`srfnb`hodfs, lufhlosmbkr`nrjblos ` fh rfosfspfljblos kf bhtfrs.
Do fdoa`rolbh, opr`aolbhy pr`g`lbh kf d`spr`yflt`s kf kfsorr`dd`,
Udohfs kf gohfc` fh rfosy tfgos fspfljbl`s fh fdgabt` d`lod.
L`htrbaubr od rkfhogbfht`y/` ol`hkblb`hogbfht`tfrrbt`rbod, os l`g` od pdohkf kfsorr`dd` uraoh` yrurod.
L`afrturo fspolbod3rfos fspfljblos kf bhtfrsd`lod
GFKB@ J\BL@Fslodo fspolbod3
- Fslodo kf troaoc`3 ?3165 555` gfh`r.
Fslodo fspolbod3
- Fslodo kf troaoc`3 ?3?55 555.
Fslodo fspolbod3
- Fslodo kf troaoc`3 ?316 555 `goy`r.
Fslodo kf puadblolbh3 o lrbtfrb` kf do bhstbtulbh, sbh l`gpr`gftfr do lodbkok kf do bhj`rgolbh p`rnfhfrodbzolbh y dfnbabdbkok kf d`s gopos.
Gotfrbod sotfdbtod3
- Bgnfhfs kf sotdbtf3rfl`gfhkoadf l`h rfs`dulbhfspolbod kf
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Jufhtf3 Fdoa`rok` poro fd gohuod, okoptok` kfd Kflrft` kfd L`hsfc` Kbrfltbv`, H 5?5-155:-L@HOG/LK.
- [flt`hbsg`- Nf`d`no fl`hgblo- Nf`d`no mbstrblo- \fkbgfht`d`no
Dos vorboadfs y otrbaut`s kfdgfkb` jsbl` kfpfhkfrh kfdrfo o fstukbor y kfd tfgolfhtrod kf do gblr`z`hbjblolbh.Odnuh`s vorboadfs kf d`s hbvfdfsgolr` y gfs` fh uh tfrrbt`rb`
l`h supfrjblbf guy pfqufopufkfh l`hstbtubrsf fhl`hstohtfs, l`g` pufkf sfr fdldbgo ` do nf`d`no.
Os gbsg`, vo o kfpfhkfr kfdtfgo lfhtrod kf dogblr`z`hbjblolbh, pufs sb oportbr kf do golr` ` gfs`z`hbjblolbh sf mo kftfrgbhok`quf d`s us`s kf uh tfrrbt`rb` sfrfstrbhnf o us` onr`pfluorb`, fsdnbl` quf o hbvfd gblr` dosvorboadfs lfhtrodfs kf bhtfrssfrh3 sufd`s l`h sus otrbaut`sbkfhtbjbloadfs o fsto fslodofspolbod, bhlduyfhk` d`s pfdbnr`shoturodfs rfdfvohtfs poro dod`lodbkok, sus oltbvbkokfspr`kultbvos y gfkb`s kf vbko.
Nf`g`rj`d`no
- Vhbkokfs nf`g`rj`dnblosbkfhtbjbloadfs o do fslodo kftroaoc` (fcfgpd`3 pbfkfg`htf,voddfs, pdohblbfs kfkfsa`rkogbfht`, g`htoos,l`dbhos, pfhbddohuros, ddohuroskf fr`sbh, aomo, fhsfhokos,fstfr`s, bsdos, fhtrf `tr`s).
Nf`g`rj`d`no
- Vhbkokfs nf`g`rj`dnblosbkfhtbjbloadfs o do fslodo kftroaoc` (fcfgpd`3 pbfkfg`htf,voddfs, pdohblbfs kfkfsa`rkogbfht`, tbp` kfg`htoos, l`dbhos odtos ygfkbos, tfrrozos odto y gfkbos,pfhbddohuros, mugfkodfs,ddohuros kf fr`sbh, aomo,fhsfhokos, fstfr`s, bsdos,olohtbdok`s, j`sos, fhtrf tr`s).
- Ur`lfs`s nf`g`rj`dnbl`s (z`hos kf bhuhkolbh, z`hos kf fr`sbh` kfnrokolbh, kfsdbzogbfht`s, l`h`s kf kfyfllbh, fhtrf `tr`s)- Nf`kbhgblo fxtfrho- Ufdbnr`s hoturodfs rfdfvohtfs
Mbkr`nrojo f Mbkr`d`no
- Qfk y Vhbkokfs Mbkr`nrjblos3Lufhlos y sualufhlosbkfhtbjbloadfs o do fslodo kftroaoc`, bhkblohk` rfos kfbhuhkolbh.- Onuos supfrjblbodfs ysuatfrrhfos, U`tfhlbod kfolujfr`s kf p`z`s (loukodfs,lodbkok fh juhlbh kfd us` y fdhbvfd jrftbl`)
Mbkr`nrojo f Mbkr`d`no
- Qfk y Vhbkokfs Mbkr`nrjblos3Lufhlos, sualufhlos ygblr`lufhlos bkfhtbjbloadfs o dofslodo kf troaoc` bhkblohk`rfos kf bhuhkolbh- Onuos supfrjblbodfs ysuatfrrhfos, Qfhkbgbfht` kfolujfr`s kf p`z`s (loukodfs,lodbkok fh juhlbh kfd us` y fdhbvfd jrftbl`)
- Lufrp`s kf onuo (don`s, donuhos, ftl.) bkfhtbjbloadfs o do fslodokf troaoc`- Loroltfrstblos jsblos, qugblos y ab`dnblo3 l`rrbfhtfs gorbhos,
hutrbfhtfs, kbstrbaulbh kf l`guhbkokfs gorbhos- Hovfnoabdbkok\ufd`s
- Jbsb`nrojo3 uhbkokfs jbsb`nrjblos y pfhkbfhtfs bkfhtbjbloadfs o dofslodo kf troaoc`.- \ufd`s fh l`hl`rkohlbo l`h dos uhbkokfs jbsb`nrjblos, ldosbjblok`skf olufrk` od \`bd [ox`h`gy (V\KO) u `tr` \bstfgo kfldosbjblolbh tox`hgblo l`h su fqubvodfhlbo fh fd \bstfgo JO@.- Odtbtuk- Ufhkbfhtf o hbvfd kf uhbkokfs jbsb`nrjblos- Lopolbkok kf us` goy`r kf do tbfrro fh l`hl`rkohlbo l`h d`s tbp`skf sufd`s y uhbkokfs jbsb`nrjblos.
- [bfrros l`h sbstfgos kfohkfhfros y tfrrozos
Ldbgo
- Urflbpbtolbh3 kbstrbaulbh tfgp`rod y fspolbod (bhlduyfhk`fvfht`s fxtrfg`s l`g` odtos prflbpbtolb`hfs sfquos)- [fgpfroturo3 kbstrbaulbh tfgp`rod y fspolbod (bhlduyfhk`fvfht`s fxtrfg`s l`g` odtos tfgpfroturos aocos tfgpfroturos)- Fvop`trohspbrolbh p`tfhlbod- Aodohlf mkrbl`- Ldosbjblolbh ldbgtblo (bhldubr tr`s pfdbnr`s ldbgtbl`s l`g`vbfht`s murolohok`s, t`rgfhtos fdltrblos, hfvokos, ftl.)- Urfsbh aor`gtrblo- Mugfkok rfdotbvo
- Fvop`rolbh gfkbo fh tohquf
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LOUB[VD@
GOUOAO\F
Kfhtr` kfd fstukb` kf dfvohtogbfht` kf sufd`, fd gopo aosf fs fd vhlud`
nf`nrjbl` `atfhbk` kf do rfl`pbdolbh kf bhj`rgolbh y do ftopo kf
pr`spfllbh, poro do kftfrgbholbh kf dos uhbkokfs jbsb`nrjblos, bhkbspfhsoadfs
poro fstoadflfr d`s puht`s kf gufstrf`. Fd gopo aosf sf l`hstrubr o portbr kft`ko do bhj`rgolbh kbsp`hbadf l`g`3 bgnfhfs sotfdbtodfs, j`t`nrojos orfos y
fdfgfht`s lort`nrjbl`s kfd gabt` kf fstukb`. Fd hbvfd kf kftoddf, fstor fh
juhlbh o do fslodo kf troaoc` kok` p`r d`s trfs hbvfdfs fspolbodfs kf do SFF.
1.?. L@GU@HFH[F\ UOQO DO FDOA@QOLBH KFD GOUO AO\F
Fd gopo aosf fstor l`gpufst` p`r d`s sbnubfhtfs fdfgfht`s3
1.?.?. LOQ[@NQJBLO OV[@GO[BSOKO
Do lort`nrojo kbnbtod op`yoko l`h sbstfgos kf bhj`rgolbh nf`nrjblo - \BN
pr`p`rlb`hor dos lopos tfgtblos sfgbkftoddokos, l`g` do t`p`nrojo, kbvbsbh
p`dtblo-okgbhbstrotbvo, rfk vbod, sbstfgo kf krfhocf, l`afrturo vfnftod y losl`s
uraoh`s d`lodfs. Loaf sfodor quf poro do gfs`z`hbjblolbh y gblr`z`hbjblolbh,
fh fspflbod fstf dtbg` h` fs sujblbfhtf do bhj`rgolbh, kfabk` od togo` kf
fslodo quf fxbnf do SFF, hflfsbtohk` op`y` kf dos j`t`nrojos rfos ` bgnfhfs
sotfdbtodfs, sfnh sfo hbvfd kf kftoddf rfqufrbk`. Zfr luokr` H 1.
Luokr` H 13QFDOLBH FH[QF DO LOQ[@NQOJO R F\LODO KF [QOAOC@Hbvfdfs kf fstukb` kf
do SFFFslodo kf troaoc`
SFFFspflbjblolb`hfs tlhblos ghbgos
GOLQ@S@HBJBLOLBH ?3 165 555 o gfh`r
Gopo t`p`nrjbl`, lortoholb`hod, j`t`lortos ` j`t`gopos ofslodo ?3 ?55 555 ` goy`r.
Gopos tfgtbl`s kf do rfnbh `kfd rfo kf fstukb`.
GF\@S@HBJBLOLBH ?3 ?55 555
?fr los`* Gopo t`p`nrjbl` ?3 ?55 555
goy`r. Lorto holb`hod lortos
ofr`j`t`nrogtrblos o fslodo ? 3
BB
Fd gopo aosf fsfd vhlud`
nf`nrjbl`
`atfhbk` kf do
rfl`pbdolbh kf
bhj`rgolbh y do
ftopo kf
pr`spfllbh, poro
do kftfrgbholbh
kf dos uhbkokfs
jbsb`nrjblos,
bhkbspfhsoadfs
porofstoadflfrd`s puht`s kfgufstrf`.
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?55 555 o ?3 165 555 Gopos tfgtbl`s kfd rfo kf
fstukb`
1k` los`*
Gopo t`p`nrjbl` ?3 16 555 goy`r.
GBLQ@S@HBJBLOLBH ?3 16 555 o goy`r Gopo t`p`nrjbl` ?3 ?5 555 o
goy`rJufhtf3 Fdoa`rok` poro fd gohuod, okoptolbh kfd K.\. 5
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555 goy`r. j`t`lortos ofslodo ?3?55 555 o ?3 65 555
1k` los` J`t`nrojos rfos vfrtblodfs,
`atfhbkos d` gos rflbfhtf p`sbadf.
Kf aufho lodbkok Fslodo ?3 ;5 555 o ?3 15555 goy`r.
G`zobl`s l`htr`dok`s sfgbl`htr`dok`s o fslodo ?3 16555 goy`r.
GBLQ@S@HBJBLOLBH ?3 16 555 o goy`r
J`t`nrojos rfos vfrtblodfs,`atfhbkos d` gos rflbfhtf p`sbadf
Kf aufho lodbkok Fslodo ?3 15 555 ?3 ?5
555 ` goy`r. G`sobl`s l`htr`dok`s y/`
`rt`j`t`gopos o fslodo ?3 ?5 555
goy`r.Jufhtf3 Fdoa`rok` poro fd gohuod, okoptolbh kfd K.\. 5
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Do tfdfkftfllbh fhtfhkbko l`g` fd trotogbfht` y ohdbsbs kf dos bgnfhfs
sotfdbtodfs, pfrgbtfh tfhfr uho vbsbh gudtbtfgp`rod kf uh rfo ` kf uh
jfhgfh`, o trovs kf gdtbpdfs bhj`rgolb`hfs fspfltrodfs p`r l`gabholbh kf
aohkos (Jbnuro H
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GBLQ@S@HBJBLOLBH ?3 16 555 ogoy`r
?5 gftr`sBgnfhfs kf sotdbtf `rokor o fslodo ?3 15 555mosto ?3 65 555.
Jufhtf3 Fdoa`rok` poro fd gohuod, okoptolbh kfd K.\. 5
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Q`O gfhuk` j`rgoh uh dgbtf fhtrf k`s j`rgolb`hfs okyolfhtfs, p`r d` nfhfroddos rfos l`gpdftogfhtf `sluros, gufstroh do rfjdfltohlbo kf d`s lufrp`s kfonuo.
Donuhos yDon`s
\`h o gfhuk` kbjfrfhlbokos p`r gohlmo guy `sluros, kf j`rgo brrfnudorjrflufhtfgfhtf j`rgok`s fhtrbhnud`s nr`sfr`s ` kf l`ht`rh`s brrfnudorfsl`h hugfr`sos dhfos f bhjdfxb`hfs ohnudorfs fh do `rbddo.
Zfnftolbh
Kfpfhkfr kf do j`rgo quf ok`ptfh dos gohlmos vbsbadfs. Do vfnftolbhhoturod sufdf kbsp`hfrsf fh j`rgo gs brrfnudorfs, fsto rfprfsfhtoko l`hgohlmos kf t`h`s `slur`s quf kfpfhkfrh kf jolt`rfs kbvfrs`s l`g` tbp`kf vfnftolbh y fstok` vfnftotbv` (luoht` gs soho sfo do pdohto gs`slur` sfr fd t`h`).
rfosludtbvokos
Gohtbfhfh uh potrh `rkfhok`, j`rgohk` goddos, ` sbnubfhk` dos lurvos kfhbvfd.
[`p`nrojo
Fd kftoddf kf do odtbtuk rfvfdo do fxbstfhlbo kf dos nf`j`rgos, sf pufkfbkfhtbjblor joddos y jrolturos kf nroh togo`, pfr` h` dos pfqufos, togp`l`sufdf kbstbhnubrsf fhtrf joddo y jrolturo. Fh nfhfrod s`h gs jlbdfs kfbkfhtbjblor fh ogabfhtfs rbk`s y sfgbrbk`s. Do bhldbholbh kfd pdoh` kf joddos`d` pufkf oprflborsf luohk` `rbnbho fslorpfs y t`ko do g`rj`d`no kfjolftos, aorrohl`s y l`h`s kf kfyfllbh os`lboko. Fh nfhfrod dosg`kbjblolb`hfs quf pufkfh sujrbr fstf tbp` kf fstrulturos (rftr`lfs` y
prkbko kf odturo kfd fslorpf) s`h kbjlbdgfhtf `asfrvoadfs fh dos j`t`nrojosorfos, pfr` h` l`h dos bgnfhfs sotfdbtodfs.
\bstfgoohtrpbl`
\f pufkf kbstbhnubr trozok`s vbodfs, jfrr`vborb`s, tuafros9 `aros kfbhjrofstrulturo, pufrt`s, ofr`pufrt`s9 sf oprflbo togabh l`g` fstol`hj`rgok` fd rfo uraoho, okfgs sf pufkf prflbsos sfnh fslodo fd tbp`kf fkbjblolbh l`g` bhkustrbos, rfsbkfhlbos, rfos l`gfrlbodfs,uraohbzolb`hfs, ftl., p`r do odturo y su ohlm`.
Jufhtf3 Okoptok` kf Cogfs (155 sf prfsfhto dos uhbkokfs fstrotbnrjblos gs
rfprfsfhtotbvos sfnh rfnbh nf`nrjblo. Fh logab` poro d`s tbp`s kf
kfp`sblbh (rfdolb`hok` l`h do kbjfrfhlbo kf odtbtuk y d`s kbjfrfhtfs pr`lfs`s kf
j`rgolbh), kokos goy`rbtorbogfhtf fh do ftopo kfd luotfrhorb`, fsth
kfjbhbkos fh fd luokr` H = y fh do jbnuro H ; sf gufstro uho rfprfsfhtolbh
fslodor kf j`rgolbh kf d`s kfpsbt`s gs tpbl`s.
http://www.monografias.com/trabajos36/poligonos-triangulos/poligonos-triangulos.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos5/induemp/induemp.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos5/induemp/induemp.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos36/poligonos-triangulos/poligonos-triangulos.shtml -
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J`rg, Onuos Lodbfhtfs
J`rgolbh Fspfrohzo
Gorlovbdlo
Mfrrokuro
Lfrr` Lmbddh
Z`dl.F
rfl
JOCO L@\[FQO
BHJFQB@Q
J`rg.
[bhoc`hfs
Z`dl,Dohl`hfs
\VU
FQB@Q
J`rgolbh
Gufrt`
J`rgolbh
Uftolos
J`rgolbh
Ohkbho
J`rgolbh
Qfk`hk`
Nrup`
Uftolos
Nrup`
Qfk`hk`
Nrup`l`pokf
\`garfr`
J`rgolbh
\ohkbh`J`rgolbh
Fhlufhtr`s
J`rgolbh
Conuoy Hfnr`
J`rgolbh
Muosbgod
Nrup`N`yddorbsqubzno
J`rg,Jorrot
\odt` kfd
Jrobdf
Z`dl._ubdgoh
J`rgolbhLmbdlo
J`rgolbh L`poro
J`rgolbh Roulo
J`rgolbh Arfos
J`rgolbh Uuhto
Nrogokod
J`golbh
Ot`l`hn`
J`rgolbh
Udogp`ho
Nrup`Muyddopgpo
Z`dl.Do
A`l`ho
Uufhtf Bhno
J`rg.
Lmbg Nrup`\ohUfkr`
Nrup`Losgo
Nrup`G`rr`\
`dor
J`rgolbh Uororh
J`rgolbh Duph
J`rg.
Lormuoz
J`rg.
\ohto
JOCO \VAOHKBHO R DDOH@ OGOSHBL@JOCO OHKBHO
J`rgolbh
Uohohno
J`rgolbh
Nbnohtod
\ur
J`rgolbh
Orlurqubho
Np`
_ubdqubh
Np`.
Uuddubloho
J`rgolbh
Q`gbrh
J`rgolbh
Gocorrh
J`rgolbh
Rugonuod
Lfhtr`H`rtf
J`rgolbh
L``r
J`rgolbh Lm`to
H`rtf
J`rgolbh Lfdfhkh
J`rgolbh Locogorlo
J`rgolbh Lolmbyolu
J`rgolbh Zbvboh
J`rgolbh Lm`hto
H`rtf Lfhtr`Lfhtr`
J`rgolbh Cugosmo
J`rgolbh Lfdfhkh
J`rgolbh Losopodlo
J`rgolbhOyoaolos
J`rgolbh Guohb
J`rgolbh
Zbdquflmbl`
J`rgolbhL`tolulm`
Odtbpdoh` y l`rk.
@rbfhtod
Nrup` G`m`
J`rgolbh \ohto
J`rgolbh Bhlo
Np`.[`qufpodo
J`rg.
_ufrquf
J`rg.
Lmbdloh
J`rgolbh
Orlurqubho
\ur
L`rkbddfro @llbkfhtod
J`rgolbh Lmudfl
J`rgolbh Uorbotoga`
J`rgolbh
Ruhloypoto
Np`.Lmbtopogpo
J`rgolbh
Jfrr`aogao
J`rgolbh
Muohloh
J`rgolbh Guhb
J`rgolbh \bpbh
Nru
p`@rbfhtf
J`rgolbh Lusmoaotoy
Nrup`Utf.Ubkro
Do Uogpbddo
J`rgolbh Lmbg
J`rg.
Gurl`
J`rgolbhRuro
Z`dl,
Gotodoquf
J`rgolbhMuodmuohb
J`rgolbhLmolmolugohf
Nrup`N`yddorbsqu
bzno
J`rg.
Houpf
J`rg. Uorbmuohlo
J`rgolbhN`yddorbsqubzno
J`rgolbh [bhoc`hfs
J`rg.
GoroJ`rgolbh Jorrot
J`rgolbh
Lormuoz
Jufhtf3 BHNFGGF[, ?226.
Luokr` H :3L@QQFDOLB@HF\ F\[QO[BNQJBLO\ KFD LQF[LF@ FH FD UFQ
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UODV\[QF\
Kf `rbnfh gorbh` ` kf onuo kudlf, s`h d`s j`rgok`s p`r doolugudolbh kf gotfrbo `rnhblo, kf `rbnfh vfnftod losbfxldusbvogfhtf, uho portf kf fsto poso p`r gulmos trohsj`rgolb hfsmosto sfr lorah. Fsto Loroltfrbzok` p`r d`s dbg`s `rnhbl`s y turao.
FZOU@Q[BL@\
Fsth j`rgok`s p`r do prflbpbtolbh qugblo kf sodfs, ld`rur`s `
sudjot`s, tpbl`s kf gfkb`s rbk` ` kfsrtbl`s, dolustrfs, donuhorfs ydbt`rodfs. L`h loroltfrstblos l`g`3 s`h jlbdgfhtf s`duadfs, pr`kulfhrfollb`hfs qugblos9 pufkfh sujrbr logab`s kf v`dugfh, fh supfrjblbfj`rgoh l`stros y rfprfsfhtoh uh rbfsn` kf muhkbgbfht` luohk` sfpr`kulfh jfhgfh`s kf kbs`dulbh y lorstbjblolbh.
KFL@HND@GFQOK@\
Fs uho r`lo sfkbgfhtorbo kf tbp` kftrtbl` j`rgoko p`r loht`srfk`hkfok`s kf `tros r`los uhbk`s p`r uho goso l`gpolto
lfgfht`. \us jrongfht`s l`hstbtutbv`s s`h goy`rfs quf d`s kf doorfho (81 gg).
Jufhtf3 Okoptolbh kf Bhnfhbfro Nf`dnblo, Dubs N`hzdfz kf Zoddfc`, Ufors`h Urfhtblf Modd.
Jbnuro H ;3 FDFGFH[@\ KF ZFQBJBLOLB@H KF DO J@[@ OQFO
L@DVZBODF\ ODVZBODF\
DOLV\[QF\
DB[@QODF\
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NDOLBOQF\
Jufhtf3Fxpd`r`li, ad`n kf dos Nf`lbfhlbos y Fxpd`rolbh, 15?5.
1.1.
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pobsocf kfd sufd`, os l`g` do Bkfhtbjblolbh y fxpdblolbh kf do vorboabdbkok
fspolbod kfd sufd`).
a. Bhtfrprftolbh kf do nhfsbs kfd sufd`
[`go l`g` rfjfrfhlbo d`s pr`lfs`s nf`g`rj`dnbl`s y fht`rh`s usok`s
rfspfltbvogfhtf, l`g` jolt`rfs y gorl`s kf j`rgolbh y fv`dulbh kfd sufd`,
aoc` d`s sbnubfhtfs lrbtfrb`s3
Ur`lfs`s nf`g`rj`dnbl`s (g`rj`nhfsbs)3
rfos l`h pfhkbfhtfs l`h hjosbs fh d`s pr`lfs`s kf j`rgolbh kf do
lugarf (j`rgok`s p`r fr`sbh ` kfp`sblbh kf jrongfht`s kf kftrtbl`s,
p`r dbxbvbolbh y olugudolbh kf fdfgfht`s s`duadfs) y fh l`hlfpt`s kf
sufd`s fhtfrrok`s l`h su troyflt`rbo.
rfos pdohos (j`rgolbh kf sbstfgos kf kfpsbt` fstrulturok`s qufl`hkulf o jufrtfs kbjfrfhlbos t`p`nrjblos, mbkr`dnblos y dbt`dnblos kfd
tfrrbt`rb`), os l`g` fd fsldorflbgbfht` kf do kbjfrfhlbolbh kf uh pfk`h fh
trgbh`s kf tfxturos y ldosfs kf krfhocf.
Jolt`r tbfgp` (g`rj`lr`h`d`no) kftfrgbhok` s`arf do aosf kf lrbtfrb`s kfd
nrok` kf kfsorr`dd` kfd sufd`.
Bgp`rtohlbo `pfrolb`hod kf do nf`g`rj`d`no, rfjfrbko o do lohtbkok kf uho
aosf kf kot`s y su l`htrbaulbh fh fd fstukb` kf sufd`.
Uoro l`gprfhkfr do rfdolbh kf do pfrlfplbh kf d`s tbp`s kf nf`j`rgos, sfnh
do fslodo kf t`go vfr do jbnuro H6 y su rfspfltbv` luokr` (luokr` H 2).
Jbnuro H 63 HBZFDF\ \FLVFHLBODF\ KF DO UFQLFULBH KF D@\ [BU@\ KFNF@J@QGO\ R \V\ L@GU@HFH[F\
Jufhtf3 O. Sbhli ?2=5.
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Udotoj`rgo kf @asfrvolbh rfo Kf@asfrvolbh Loroltfrstblos @asfrvokos
Lrbtfrb`s Vtbdbzok`sUoro Do Kfkullbh Kf
Jolt`rfs
Nf`j`rgosQfsudtohtfs
L`hlfpt`sKfrbvok`s Lotfn`ro
Nfhrblo
\otdbtfNroh portf kf uh
l`htbhfhtf
D`hnbtukbhod, fstrflm`, golbz` rfdbfvfodt`, dbgbtfs oarupt`s
[`p`nrojoNf`kbhgblo bhtfrho
(rfo `r`nhblo)
L`kbddfro (lokfho kfg`htoos pdfnokos)
Nf`fstrulturo
Nrohkf, ddoh`, Aoc` (fhtfrrok`), rfdbfvfgolbz`
[`p`nrojoNf`kbhgblo bhtfrho(fspolb` muhkbk`)
Nf`sbhldbhod (lufhlosfkbgfhtorbo)
OvbhL`rkbddfro
sbfrro d`hnbtukbhod j`rgok` p`r lokfhosg`hto`sos porodfdos9 jufrtfgfhtf
kbsfltokos
[`p`nrojoNf`kbhgblo fxtfrho
(fr`sbh)
Fstrulturo/ Gfkb`ogabfhtf fr`sb`hok`
G`rj`nfhftblo kfdgfkb` ogabfhtf
\flufhlbo kf tbfrros aocos pdohos fhtrflokfhos3 a`rkfs lhlov`s
[`p`nrojo[flthbl`
Nf`kbhgblo fxtfrho(kfp`sblbh kfsfkbgfht`s)
Gfkb` ogabfhtfkfp`sblb`hod
Mfdblptfr` Fstrulturo/ fr`sbhkfd gfkb` ogabfhtf
lrfstos g`hto`sos porodfdos[`p`nrojo, [flthbl`
Mbkr`nrojoG`htoo
UobsocfD`hnbtukbhod, kfprfsb`hfs ohn`stos
porodfdos pfrpfhkbludorfs o dol`rkbddfro
[`p`nrojo[flthbl`
Mbkr`nrojoZoddf
\upfrjblbf tfrrfstrfZoddf
L`hjbnurolbh fslodoko, hbvfdfst`p`nrjbl`s porodfd`s sfporok`s p`r
fslorpok`s[`p`nrojo [frrozo
Qfdbfvf
J`hk` kf voddf, sbstfgo jduvbod,j`rfstoro rbafrfo
[`p`nrojo, KrfhocfZfnftolbh
Ddohuro oduvbod
U`r fhlbgo y p`r kfaoc` kf dosupfrjblbf kf do [bfrro
(l`rtfzo tfrrfstrf supfrb`r) [frrozo
D`hnbtukbhod, fstrflm`, pdotoj`rgol`hvfxo l`h aufh krfhocf9 kf tfxturo
nrufso
[`p`nrojoKrfhocf
G`rj`nhfsbsKbquf
J`rgo kfd tfrrfh`
Dorn`, ogpdb`, kfprfsbh lhlovo3 kfgod krfhocf, kf tfxturo jbho.
[`p`nrojo, KrfhocfG`rj`nhfsbs
Lufhlo
Jufhtf3 O. Sbhli ?2=5
Luokr` H 23 BKFH[BJBLOLBH \FLVFHLBOD KF DO\ NF@J@QGO\ (kfslrbplbh kf do jbnuro H 6)
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L`hlrftbzolbh kf d`s kftoddf(Gs otrbaut`s)
Ldosbjblolbh
Bkfhtbjblolbh
l. Bkfhtbjblolbh kf dos uhbkokfs nf`g`rj`dnblos
Dos uhbkokfs nf`g`rj`dnblos fsth l`gpufstos p`r sfbs hbvfdfs. Fd kftoddf kf
loko uhbkok fs bhvfrsogfhtf pr`p`rlb`hod od `rkfh cfrrqubl`, vfr luokr` H
?5.
Luokr` H ?53 HBZFD KF KF[ODDF KF DO\ VHBKOKF\ NF@G@QJ@DNBLO\
Sff Hbvfd Lotfn`ro L`hlfpt` Nfhrbl`
GOLQ@S@H
BJBLOLBH
: @rkfh
Nf`fstrulturoNroh portf l`htbhfhtod loroltfrbzok` p`r uhofstrulturo fspflbjblo nf`dnblo (fkok y hoturodfzokf dos r`los, fstbd` tflthbl`)[oxo3 l`rkbddfro, nf`sbhldbhod, ad`qufsl`htbhfhtodfs)
6 \ua`rkfh
G`rj`nfhtblo kfd gfkb` ogabfhtf[bp` nfhfrod kf gfkb` ab`jsbl` `rbnbhok` yl`htr`dok` p`r uh fstbd` nf`kbhgblo bhtfrh` `fxtfrho.[oxo3 gfkb` fstrulturod, kfp`sblb`hod, fr`sb`hod,kbs`dulb`hod y gbxt`).
GF\@S@HBJBLOLBH
; Nrup`
UobsocfNroh portf kf do tbfrro sf loroltfrbzo p`rrfpftblb`hfs kf tbp`s kf rfdbfvf sbgbdorfs yos`lbolbh kf tbp`s kf rfdbfvfs kbstbht`s (fcfgpd`,voddf, gfsfto, g`htoo, ftl.).
< \uanrup`
Qfdbfvf/ G`kfdogbfht`
Fd rfdbfvf fsto kftfrgbhok` p`r uho l`gabholbh kft`p`nrojo y fstrulturo nf`dnblo, p`r fcfgpd`lufsto.[oxo3 Zoddf, ddohuro, pfhbddohuro, gfsfto, pbf kfg`htf (tfrrozos), l`dbhos, g`htoos
Fd g`kfdogbfht` fsto kftfrgbhok` p`r l`hkblb`hfsfspfljblos g`rj`ldbgtblos y g`rj`nfhtblos(fcfgpd`3 tfrrozo, kfdto, ftl.)[oxo3 Zfr luokr` H ??.
GBLQ@S@HBJBLOLB
H
1 Jogbdbo
Dbt`d`no/ josfsHoturodfzo Uftr`nrjblo kf dos r`los kuros (p`rfcfgpd`, nhfbs, lodbzo, ftl) ` p`r fd `rbnfh hoturodkf dos j`rgolb`hfs kf do luabfrto suovfs.
[oxo3 Ldosf kf r`los y gotfrbod kf `rbnfh (hbvod,ndolbor, pfrbndolbor, oduvbo, l`duvbod, kbduvbod,dolustrf, dbt`rod l`stfr`, g`vbgbfht` kf gosos,nrovbtolb`hod, v`dlhbl`, ab`nfhbl`, gbxt` jduvb`/ndolbor, l`duvb`/oduvbod, jduvb`/v`dlhbl`- yohtr`pbl`.
? \uajogbdbo
J`rgo kfd tfrrfh`\`arfsodbfhtfs tbp`s kf nf`j`rgo asbl`s,loroltfrbzok`s p`r uho l`gabholbh hblo kfnf`gftro, kbhogbsg` y mbst`rbo. Fstf logp` fs fdgs ogpdb` kf t`k`s y kfpfhkfr kfd lrbtfrb` kfdfvoduok`r.
Jufhtf3 Okoptok` kf O. Sbhli, ?2=2
Fxtrollbh nfhfrodbzoko(Gfh`s otrbaut`s)
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Luokr` H ??3 [BU@\ KF G@KFDOGBFH[@
Fstrulturod Fdbl` Kfp`sblb`hodKbs`dutbv`(iortbl)
Qfsbkuod
KfprfsbhL`dbho aocoLufstoLrfst`h
M`naoliJdotbr`hFslorpok`NroafhM`rstOhtbldbhod\bhldbhodOhtbldbhodfxlovok`\bhldbhodl`dnohtfL`gafLdusfQbknfL`h` (v`dlhbl`)
Kbquf
KfprfsbhZoddfLo`hNdolbs
L`dbho aocoL`dbhoLrfstoLmfvr`h (Qojtfr)QbknfKbquf
Kfprfsb`hfsLfhfnoJ``kpdohfDdog`
[frrozoL`dbho aocoOaohbl`NdolbsKfdtoFstuorb`Orrflbjf kf l`rodOt`dh
Kfprfsb`hfsLpudo[`rrf l`dbhoU`dc
Adbhk vodfKry vodfLohy`h(-l`ddopsf vodf)
\upfrjblbf pdohoLpudo
BhsfdafrnG`hokh`li
[`rsLoht`s r`kok`s
Jufhtf3 Okoptok` kf O. Sbhli, ?2=2
1.1.;. LQB[FQB@\ JB\B@NQJBL@\
Fd gopo kf sufd`s sf fstoadflf fh juhlbh kf do ldosbjblolbh jbsb`nrjblo
nfhfroko o portbr kfd gopo nf`g`rj`dnbl`. \`arf fsto aosf sf bkfhtbjbloh d`s
sufd`s loroltfrstbl`s l`hsbkfrohk` rohn`s kf pfhkbfhtf.
Os togabh do os`lbolbh kf do nf`d`no l`h do nf`g`rj`d`no, kftfrgbho do
fstrulturo kfd sbstfgo cfrrqubl` jbsb`nrjbl`, fh dos sbnubfhtfs lotfn`ros.
Ur`vbhlbo Jbsb`nrjblo(bhlduyfhk` z`ho ` uhbkok ldbgtblo)
L`rrfsp`hkf o uho rfnbh hoturod fh do quf sf pufkfh prfsfhtor uho ` gs
uhbkokfs ldbgtblos, fstohk` l`hj`rgoko p`r l`hcuht`s kf uhbkokfs
nfhtblos kf rfdbfvf l`h rfdolb`hfs kf porfhtfsl` kf tbp` nf`dnbl`, fh
luoht` o do dbt`d`no y fstrulturos prfk`gbhohtfs, do t`p`nrjblo fsto
fhgorloko o hbvfd rfnb`hod.
Vhbkok Ldbgtblo3 Do ldosbjblolbh kf dos uhbkokfs ldbgtblos pufkf molfrrfjfrfhlbo o sbstfgos prfkfjbhbk`s kf ldosbjblolbh ldbgtblo, fh d`s quf sf
bhv`dulroh ospflt`s l`g` tfgpfroturo, odtbtuk, mugfkok kbsp`hbadf, fhtrf
`tros.
Nroh Uobsocf ` uhbkok nfhtblo kf rfdbfvf3Fsto lotfn`ro l`htbfhf uhbkokfs
nfhtblos kf rfdbfvf prfsfhtfs fh uh tfrrfh`, pfr` l`abcokos p`r uho uhbkok
ldbgtblo kftfrgbhoko, quf sf fhlufhtrf fh uho pr`vbhlbo jbsb`nrjblo
fspfljblo. Fd porfhtfsl` nf`nfhtbl`, bgpdblo quf do g`rj`d`no nfhfrod kfd
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rfdbfvf sfo pr`kult` kf uh`s pr`lfs`s nf`grjbl`s fhknfh`s goy`rfs
l`g` pdfnogbfht`, vudlohbsg`, sfkbgfhtolbh, kfhukolbh, ftl.
Uobsocf3 Fst l`htfhbk` fh uh Nroh pobsocf, pfr` prfsfhto uh`s otrbaut`s
portbludorfs l`g` fd tbp` kf gotfrbod porfhtod prfk`gbhohtf, fkok, fhtrf`tr`s.
\uapobsocf3L`rrfsp`hkf o do kbvbsbh kf uhbkokfs kf pobsocf, poro fjflt`s
prltbl`s kf do kfslrbplbh kf us` kfd sufd` y su p`tfhlbod, l`hsbkfrohk` d`s
sbnubfhtfs porgftr`s kf ldosbjblolbh3
J`rgo y/` nrok` kf pfhkbfhtf[bp` y nrok` kf fr`sbh olfdfroko
Ldosf kf l`hkblbh kf krfhocfs fh ddohuros
Nrok` kf kbsfllbh hoturod ` nf`dnblo fh odtbpdohblbfs y nf`j`rgosonrokolb`hodfs.
Fdfgfht` kfd Uobsocf3loroltfrbzok`s p`r uh gblr` rfdbfvf kf l`gpdfc`. D`s
trgbh`s quf sf usoh fh fstf hbvfd s`h lhlov`, l`hvfx`9 odt`, gfkb`, aoc`.
Fh fd sbnubfhtf luokr` (luokr` H ?1) sf fstoadflf do rfdolbh kf dos uhbkokfs
jbsb`nrjblos l`h d`s hbvfdfs kf do SFF y fd luokr` H ?
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1.
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\f oprflbo fh fd nrojbl` H 1, do rfdolbh kf d`s kbjfrfhtfs fdfgfht`s kfd
tfrrbt`rb`, poro fdd` sf kfaf l`hsbkfror quf3
Loko lopo tfgtblo fs do aosf kf do suasbnubfhtf.
Fd hbvfd kf kftoddf fstor kok` p`r do fslodo kf troaoc`, kok` p`r fd hbvfd kf
fstukb` kf do SFF. Loko ollbkfhtf nf`nrjbl` pufkf l`htfhfr gs kf uho uhbkok jbsb`nrjblo.
Vho uhbkok nf`g`rj`dnblo pufkf tfhfr uho nhfsbs portbludor, l`gpdfco `
os`lboko o vorb`s pr`lfs`s, bhlduyfhk` d`s pr`lfs`s kf g`kfdogbfht` o d`
dorn` kfd tbfgp`, p`r toht` l`htbfhfh o dos uhbkokfs kfd pobsocf pr`pbos kf
do jbsb`nrojo.
1.;. [QOSOK@ KF DO\ QFO\ KF GVF\[QF@
\f kfdbgbto fd rfo kf gufstrf` sbnubfhk` fd l`ht`rh` kf dos uhbkokfsjbsb`nrjblos, do kfhsbkok kf do gufstro fstor fh juhlbh kf d`s lrbtfrb`s
tlhbl`s, kfslrbt`s fh fd sbnubfhtf loptud`.
Uoro fgpfzor fd trozok` kf d`s dgbtfs kf loko uhbkok, sf t`gor
rfjfrfhlbodgfhtf d`s luotr` nrohkfs tbp`s kf rfdbfvf, l`g` abfh d` sfodo [opbo
y Dpfz.(1551) G`hto`sos, L`dbhos, Ubfkfg`htfs y Udohblbfs, l`hsbkfrohk`
odnuh`s rosn`s kfd rfdbfvf, quf pfrgbtoh kfjbhbr y kbjfrfhlbor loko tbp`, todfs
l`g`3 dos rupturos kf pfhkbfhtf, fd us` kf sufd`, do l`afrturo vfnftod, do
odtbtuk, (t`goko kf do aosf t`p`nrjblo kbnbtod), do prfsfhlbo kf logab`sdbt`dnbl`s (t`h`, potrh, tfxturo, togo`, ftl.), do kfhsbkok kf krfhocf, do
p`sblbh y j`rgo t`p`nrjblo kf loko uhbkok g`rj`nfhtblo (sfo kgblo,
lhblo, ftl.), d`s rosn`s kbsyuhtbv`s dbhfodfs kfd rfdbfvf (joddos y jrolturos) y do
aosfs nf`dnblos o fslodos gfkbohos, sb dos muabfro (?3165,555 y ?3?55,555).
U`stfrb`rgfhtf, fstos uhbkokfs sfrh suakbvbkbkos l`hsbkfrohk` sus `rnfhfs
(nfhfrod y fspfljbl`), dbt`d`no, nf`gftro kfd rfdbfvf y fspolb` nf`nrjbl`.
Uoro kbjfrfhlbor o fstos luotr` uhbkokfs, fh l`hkblbh prbgorbo, sf kfaf
l`hsbkfror d` sbnubfhtf,
Uoro dos g`hto`sos, su odturo kfaf sfr do goy`r (fd dgbtf odtbtukbhod d`
kfjbhbr fd gfkb` fh fd quf sf fhlufhtro, sfo l`sto, sbfrro ` sfdvo), sf kfaf
`asfrvor sb prfsfhto rosn`s kbsyuhtbv`s, rupturos pfhkbfhtf, l`afrturo
vfnftod, ftl.
Uoro dos l`dbhos do odturo rfdotbvo kfaf sfr gfh`r o do kf dos g`htoos, luy`
dgbtf odtbtukbhod d` kor fd gabt` kf fstukb`, togabh sf kfafr t`gor fh
lufhto d`s p`sbadfs pokr`hfs (kgbl`, lhbl`, ftl).
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Uoro d`s pbfkfg`htfs, sf auslor rfl`h`lfr dos loroltfrstblos kf
kfp`sblbh y olugudolbh kf gotfrbod, rupturos, os l`g` do fslosfz kf
l`afrturo vfnftod hoturod.
Uoro dos pdohblbfs, kfabk` o su loroltfrstblo trbkbgfhsb`hod p`l` logabohtf
fh fd g`kfd` fstfrf`slpbl`, d`s fdfgfht`s gs bgp`rtohtfs o l`hsbkfrorsfrh fd us` kfd sufd`, logab` kf pfhkbfhtf, tbp` kf kfp`sblbh (oduvbodfs,
dolustrfs, `tr`s) y fh odnuh`s los`s l`rr`a`ror l`h do aosf nf`dnblo o
fslodo.
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LOUB[VD@
KF[FQGBHOLBHKFDOKFH\BKOKKFGVF\[QF@
Fd fstukb` kf dfvohtogbfht` kf sufd`s l`gprfhkf uh l`hcuht` kf oltbvbkokfs
l`hsflutbvos, uho kf do gs bgp`rtohtf fs kftfrgbhor fd togo` kf gufstro.
Fsto sf `atfhkr opdblohk` fd K.\. H 5
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GF\@S@HBJBLOLBH
?3 ?55 555
?fr los`3Qfl`h`lbgbfht`
1k` los`3\fgbkftoddok`
Ghbg` 1 lodblotos p`r loko 655 mo. Fh sfdvo ghbg` uh lodbloto loko ?555 mo. @
ghbg` 1 lodblotos p`r loko uhbkok nf`nrjblo. Fh do z`ho kf gufstrf` sf pufkfh bhlrfgfhtor.
Fh do z`ho kf gufstrf` = `asfrvolb`hfs p`rloko ?55 mo. Kf dos luodfs ghbg` 1 kfafh sfrlodblotos y dos `tros aorrfhocfs.
Jufro kf do z`ho kf gufstrf`, ; `asfrvolb`hfsp`r loko ?55 mo. Kf dos luodfs l`g` ghbg` ?kfaf sfr lodbloto.
GBLQ@S@HBJBLOLBH
?3 16 555 ogoy`r
Kftoddok`?; `asfrvolb`hfs p`r loko ?55 mo. Kf dosluodfs l`g` ghbg` ; kfafh sfr lodblotos
Jufhtf3 Fdoa`rok` poro fd gohuod, okoptolbh kfd K.\. 53 LODLVD@ UOQO KF[FQGBHOQ FD [OGO@ KF GVF\[QO
Jufhtf3 Fdoa`rok` poro fd gohuod.
\bh fgaorn` sb fcflutog`s fd fstukb` kf sufd`;l`hsbkfrohk` dos
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l`st` sfro kf $?=,=;5.55 kdorfs ogfrbloh`s, o g`hfko holb`hod l`h uh tbp`
kf logab` kf $1.=5 p`r $?.55 kdor, fd l`st` rfod sfro kf s/.61,>61.55 hufv`s
s`dfs, d` quf moro bhvboadf kblm` fstukb`, p`r d` quf fs bhkbspfhsoadf lodludor
okfluokogfhtf fd togo` kf gufstro.
, sbh fgaorn` fso koto h` rfprfsfhto fd togo` rfod kf
gufstro. Fh fd Ufr do l`gabholbh kf kbjfrfhtfs jolt`rfs y pr`lfs`s kf
j`rgolbh moh l`hjbnurok` fd tfrrbt`rb` kf gohfro h` m`g`nhfo, sbfhk`
hflfsorb` fd fgpdf` kf uho lorto t`p`nrjblo o pfqufo fslodo sfnh sfo fd
los`, ` fd op`y` kf j`t`nrojos orfos ` bgnfhfs sotfdbtodfs poro kbjfrfhlbor
okfluokogfhtf d`s tbp`s kf rfdbfvf, poro `atfhfr fd togo` kf gufstro
okfluok`.
,
k`hkf fd togo` kf gufstro, opdblohk` do h`rgo fs kf
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O fdd` sf opdblo lrbtfrb`s nf`fspolbodfs, quf pufkfh rfkulbr fd togo` kf
gufstro mosto uh ?6%. U`r lbtor k`s fcfgpd`s poro fd los` kf do bgonfh fh do
jbnuro H =3
Urbgfr`, h` sf l`hsbkfro dos rfos kf ojd`rogbfht` r`l`s`, (s`h kfslortokos
l`g` uhbkokfs kf gufstrf`), y \fnuhk` sf tfhkr fh lufhto do uhbh kf gs kf uho uhbkok jbsb`nrjblo,
p`r gohtfhfr fd gbsg` pr`lfs` kf `r`nhfsbs (pdohblbf-l`dbho-lbgo),
rfkulbfhk` oh gs fd togo` kf gufstro.
@atfhbfhk` uh t`tod kf ?=> uhbkokfs fkjblos.
Jbnuro H =3 [OGO@ KF GVF\[QO AO\OK@ FH VHBKOKF\ JB\B@NQJBLO\
Jufhtf3 Fdoa`rok` poro fd gohuod.
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Jbnuro H 23 [QO\DOUF KF BHJ@QGOLBH
Jufhtf3 Fdoa`rok` poro fd gohuod.
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Jbnuro H ?53 BH[FQU@DOLBH KF BHJ@QGOLBH
Jufhtf3 Fdoa`rok` poro fd gohuod.
9
Kug`ht y Norlo, ?2=29 lbtok` p`r Q`krbnufz, ?226). Os gbsg` prfsfhto gulmos
dbgbtolb`hfs, l`g` sf sfodo fh fd luokr` H ?6. \bfhk` kbjlbd rfodbzor fstukb`s
kf sufd` fh do z`ho9 p`r fdd` sf pr`p`hf l`hsbkfror d`s sbnubfhtfs lrbtfrb`s od
g`gfht` kf fjfltuor uh dfvohtogbfht` kf sufd`3
Qfodbzor fd dfvohtogbfht` kf sufd` prfjfrfhtfgfhtf fh p`lo sflo
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Kfjbhbr do mftfr`nfhfbkok fspolbod kfd sufd`, poro kfhsbjblor fd togo` kf
gufstro.
Kfjbhbr uho t`p`nrojo d` gs m`g`nhfo y pdoho p`sbadf poro do opfrturo
kf do lodbloto
L`rrfdolb`hor fd tbp` kf a`squf (tbp` kf pdhtudos) l`h fd rfo kf gufstrf`,poro h` kbjbludtor do opfrturo kf dos lodblotos y fjfltuor rpbkogfhtf fd
gufstrf`, ohtf fd logab` bhfspfrok` kfd ldbgo.
Os gbsg` sf gfhlb`ho fh fd luokr` H ?: y ?> do ldosbjblolbh y kbstrbaulbh
nfhfrod kf d`s sufd`s rfodbzok` p`r fd BBOU.
Luokr` H ?63 JOL[@QF\ DBGB[OH[F\ KF D@\ \VFD@\ KF DO \FDZO UFQVOHO AOC@ZFNF[OLB@H HO[VQOD
Jolt`r dbgbtohtf Gbdd`hfs kf mo. % kf do sfdvo
Kfjblbfhlbo kf Hbtrnfh`Kfjblbfhlbo kf Jsj`r`[`xblbkok kf Odugbhb`Aoco rfsfrvo kf I, Gn, y `tr`s hutrbfhtfs.Odto fr`sbabdbkokAoco lopolbkok kf bhtfrlogab` lotbhbl`.\fquo p`r gs kf trfs (5.>;2.>;2.1;:.;1?;. KB\[QBAVLB@H NFHFQOD KF D@\ \VFD@\ KF DO OGOS@HBO
UFQVOHO \FNVH \V\ LOQOL[FQB\[BLO\ (\`bd tox`h`gy)Onrupolb`hfs kf sufd`s
\upfrjblbf(gbdd`hfs kf mo.) %
\ufd`s lbk`s kf aoco jfrtbdbkok hoturod, abfh krfhok`s,t`p`nrojo pdoho o suovfgfhtf hkudoko(Vdtbs`dfs, Kbstr`pfpts).
\ufd`s kf t`p`nrojo fslorpoko, jufrtfgfhtf kbsfltok`s(Fhtbs`dfs, Bhlfptbs`dfs, Vdtbs`dfs, Odjbs`dfs)
\ufd`s god krfhok`s, oduvbodfs, onuocodfs(Oqufpts, Oqufhts).
\ufd`s kf g`kfroko o odto jfrtbdbkok hoturod l`ht`p`nrojo pdoho o dfvfgfhtf hkudoko
(Odjbs`dfs, Zfrtbs`dfs, Bhlfptbs`dfs, Fhtbs`dfs).
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LOUB[VD@
UDOHBJBLOLBHKFDUQ@LF\@KFGVF\[QF@FHLOGU@
Do pdohbjblolbh kfd dfvohtogbfht` kf sufd` sf kfsorr`ddo aoc` fd fhj`quf kf do
SFF, kf olufrk` l`h dos p`dtblos y h`rgos kfd gabt` kf fstukb`. Fsto ftopo
bhv`dulro o t`k`s d`s olt`rfs d`lodfs, sbfhk` do aosf poro fd pr`lfs` kf
s`lbodbzolbh kf do bhj`rgolbh. Do l``rkbholbh sfr bhkbspfhsoadf poro do
fjfltbvbkok kf fsto ftopo.
;.?. UO\@\ KF DO UDOHBJBLOLBH
\f pr`lfkfr o rfodbzor d`s sbnubfhtfs pos`s, tfhbfhk` yo fdoa`rok` fd gopo
aosf y fd togo` kf gufstro kfjbhbk` y `tr`s fdfgfht`s lort`nrjbl`s quf sf
rfqubfroh.
Ohtfs kf do sodbko kf logp`3
Fdoa`rolbh kfd pdoh kf troaoc`.
Qfuhbh Bhblbod, poro jbcor do jflmo kf sodbko kf logp`, fh l`hl`rkohlbo l`hdos portfs bhv`dulrokos (prfjfrfhtfgfhtf fh p`lo sflo).
\f fstoadflfh dos vos kf ollfs` quf pfrgbtoh oaorlor, fh su goy`ro, t`k`
fd gabt` kf fstukb`.
\f nfstb`hor poro fd pfrs`hod tlhbl` uh sfnur` p`r ollbkfhtfs (`plb`hod).
\f fhtrfnor d`s rfqufrbgbfht`s tlhbl`s, poro su okqubsblbh ` odqubdfr
\f fdoa`ror d`s kbsf`s kf j`rgot`s kf Logp` (torcftos kf loroltfrbzolbh
y/` fhlufstos:
\f pr`p`rlb`horo kf t`k`s d`s fdfgfht`s rfqufrbk`s od pr`jfsb`hod, k`s kos
ohtfs kf do sodbko kf logp`, os l`g` bgpdfgfht`s kf sfnurbkok poro d y fd
pfrs`hod kf op`y`, l`h fxlfplbh kf d`s fqubp`s kf odqubdfr quf sfrh
fhtrfnok`s fd ko kf fcflulbh.
, sb jufro hflfsorb`).
\f l``rkbhor prfjfrfhtfgfhtf kfskf fd bhblb` kfd fstukb` fd pfrs`hod kf
op`y` fh logp` (p`adok`r kf do z`ho), y op`y` bhstbtulb`hod (sfnh sfo fd
los`), l`g` lfhtr` kf l``rkbholbh.
\f l``rkbhor o su vfz do g`vbdbkok poro fd kfspdozogbfht` fh fd gabt` kf
troaoc`.
:Do bhj`rgolbh rfl`nbko p`r do fhlufsto kfd sufd` oyuko fh fd kfsorr`dd` kf pdohfs kf us` kf do tbfrro.O su vfz fvodo y prfkblf d`s fjflt`s kfd us` kfd sufd` fh fd gfkb` ogabfhtf.
BZ
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Fh logp`3
\f kftfrgbho d`s trohsfpt`s kf gufstrf`, op`yoko fh do rfk vbod d`lod,
oltuodbzoko.
L``rkbhor hufvogfhtf fd op`y` kf logp`.
\olor do gufstro y fdoa`ror do m`co kf lust`kbo, poro loko lodbloto. Vho vfz tfrgbhoko do rfl`dfllbh kf gufstros sf fhtrfnor od l``rkbhor, fd
t`tod kf dos gufstros poro quf sfo trohsp`rtok` od doa`rot`rb`
l`rrfsp`hkbfhtf poro su ohdbsbs.
;.1. GO[FQBODF\,MFQQOGBFH[O\ R F_VBU@ KF \FNVQBKOK
Do lohtbkok kf gotfrbodfs o fgpdfor fstor fh juhlbh od togo` kf gufstro.
\f kfslrbaf o l`htbhuolbh, d`s bhstrugfht`s fspflbodbzok`s poro do fcflulbhkfd dfvohtogbfht` kf dos gufstros3
lbk` ld`rmkrbl` od ?6%3\f fgpdfo poro kftfrgbhor bh-sbtu do prfsfhlbo kf
odugbhb` fh do gufstro.
A`dso kf p`dbftbdfh` kf aoco kfhsbkok kf ?in3 Fgpdfok` poro l`d`lor do
gufstro rfl`dfltoko.
Lgoro kbnbtod3 Ufrgbtf `atfhfr fh tbfgp` rfod fd rfnbstr` vbsuod kf do
gufstro.
L`stodfs tfcbk`s kf p`dbftbdfh`3Fgpdfok` poro l`d`lor uh nrup` kf gufstros
y su trohsp`rtf sfo sfnur` fh logp`.
Lulmbdd` y/` podo gufstrfok`ro3 Vsok` poro solor do gufstro
lubkok`sogfhtf.
Fldgftr` ` hbvfd kf bhnfhbfr`3 Ufrgbtf gfkbr do pfhkbfhtf kfd rfo kf
gufstrf`.
NU\3\bstfgo kf p`sblb`hogbfht` nd`aod, fgpdfok` poro t`gor d`s puht`s
fh logp` kf loko lodbloto, poro su p`stfrb`r gopf`, os l`g` kf `tr`s
puht`s quf pufkoh sfr tbdfs poro loroltfrbzor fd rfo kf fstukb`, sfnh
lrbtfrb` kfd fspflbodbsto.
Mfrrogbfhtos poro do opfrturo kfd sufd` (Dogpo, pbl`, aorrfho)3Ufrgbtfh
oarbr rfo kf gufstrf`.
Dbarfto kf logp`3poro do oh`tolbh kf `asfrvolb`hfs quf pufkoh sfr kf
oyuko fh do l`hjbnurolbh kfd fstukb` kf sufd`.
Gufstrfok`r kf sufd`3poro rfodbzor d`s aorrfhocfs.
Ufolmbgftr` mfddbnf tr`u3pfrgbtf gfkbr bh sbtu, fd nrok` kf olbkfz kfd sufd`.
Udugh bhkfdfadf3Vsok` poro r`tudor dos gufstros t`gokos.
[oado Gohsfdd3pfrgbtf kftfrgbhor fd l`d`r l`rrflt` kf do gufstro kf sufd`.
[orcfto kf loroltfrbzolbh3Fgpdfok` poro kfslrbabr fd fht`rh` kf k`hkf sfsol` do gufstro y poro loroltfrbzor d`s m`rbz`htfs fkjbl`s.
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^bhlmo3Kf < g., fgpdfok` poro gfkbr fd togo` kf do lodbloto.
Gbfhtros quf d`s bgpdfgfht`s kf sfnurbkok pfrs`hodfs rfl`gfhkoadfs poro su
us` fh logp` s`h3
Losl`, Nuohtfs,
Sopot`s kf sfnurbkok
Hbhnuh` kf fst`s bgpdfgfht`s s`h kf us` `adbnot`rb`.
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LOUB[VD@
F\[VKB@G@QJ@DNBL@KFD\VFD@
Fh fsto ftopo sf kfslrbaf dos loroltfrstblos kfd sufd`, sfnh fd gabt` kf
fstukb`. Fd fstukb` g`rj`dnbl` kfd sufd` pfrgbtf kftfrgbhor sus otrbaut`s, o
portbr kf dos `asfrvolb`hfs fh logp`, rfodbzohk` uh l`rtf vfrtblod kf k`s
kbgfhsb`hfs poro kftfrgbhor fd pfrjbd kfd sufd`, kbspufst` p`r lopos u
m`rbz`htfs, luy` dgbtf kfpfhkfr kf su kfsorr`dd` pfk`nfhtbl`.
6.?. @A\FQZOLB@HF\ KF \VFD@\
Dos `asfrvolb`hfs sf aosoh fh do kfslrbplbh, bkfhtbjblolbh y fvoduolbh kfd
pfrjbd kfd sufd`, o trovs kf lodblotos, aorrfhocfs ` l`rtfs hoturodfs kfd tfrrfh`.
Do prbgfro poro l`hjbnuror fd tfrrbt`rb` luohk` h` sf lufhto l`h bhj`rgolbh kf
do z`ho kf fstukb`, y dos k`s dtbgos poro do vfrbjblolbh kf dos uhbkokfs
tox`hgblos yo fstoadflbkos p`r fstukb`s ohtfrb`rfs. O l`htbhuolbh sf kftoddo
su opdblolbh.
Nfhfrolbh kf bhj`rgolbh
Lodblotos3 fxlovolb`hfs fh fd tfrrfh`, kf opr`xbgokogfhtf ?.5 x ?.5g
dorn` p`r ohlm`, kf pr`juhkbkok vorboadf kfabk` o do prfsfhlbo kf
jolt`rfs dbgbtohtfs todfs l`g` lopos fhkurflbkos, nrovos, pbfkro, r`lo,
hopo jrftblo, ftl.
L`gpr`aolbh y/` rfl`h`lbgbfht` kf dos uhbkokfs tox`hgblos yo
fstoadflbkos
Lmfquf`s Kftoddok`s3 \f pufkf kor kf k`s j`rgos, do prbgfro fs dodbgpbfzo porlbod kfd rfo kf gufstrf`, sfnubk` kfd aorrfhocf `, rfodbzor
fxlovolb`hfs fh fd tfrrfh`, j`rgohk` uh m`y` kf 5.65 x 5.65 g.
opr`xbgokogfhtf, sfnubk` kfd aorrfhocf poro bkfhtbjblor dos portfs gs
pr`juhkos kfd pfrjbd.
Lmfquf`s kf Bkfhtbjblolbh3 \`h aorrfhocfs u `asfrvolb`hfs fh l`rtfs
hoturodfs ` lorrftfros, sf pufkfh kor o portbr kf uh l`rtf vfrtblod
kfspfcok`, k`hkf do dflturo sfr bhgfkboto.
Z
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O su vfz sf pufkfh molfr `asfrvolb`hfs okblb`hodfs, sbfgprf y luohk`
l`htrbauyoh o uho gfc`r bhtfrprftolbh kfd dfvohtogbfht` kf sufd`s, l`g`
kot`s s`arf do j`rgo kf tfhfhlbo kf do pr`pbfkok, us` y gohfc` oltuod kf do
tbfrro, rbfsn`s kf bhuhkolb`hfs, fhtrf tr`s.
6.1. DFL[VQO KF UFQJBDF\
Vho vfz l`hjfllb`hoko do lodbloto sf dffr fd pfrjbd nfhtbl` kfsorr`ddok` fh do
uhbkok, t`gohk` l`g` rfjfrfhlbo d`s l`hlfpt`s asbl`s kfd \`bd [ox`h`gy
(V\KO, 15?5), ` uh sbstfgo kf ldosbjblolbh fqubvodfhtf. D`s m`rbz`htfs ` lopos
o fvoduor pufkfh prfsfhtoh dos sbnubfhtfs kfh`gbholb`hfs3
6.1.?. M@QBS@H[F\ GOR@QF\
M`rbz`htfs ` lopos @3K`gbhokos p`r gotfrbodfs kf sufd` `rnhbl`. Odnuhos
fsth soturokos l`h onuo kurohtf dorn`s pfr`k`s ` fstuvbfr`h soturokos
pfr` om`ro fsth ortbjblbodgfhtf krfhokos9 `tros huhlo moh fstok`
soturokos.
M`rbz`htfs y lopos D3 Bhlduyfh toht` o gotfrbodfs dghbl`s gbhfrodfs y
`rnhbl`s quf jufr`h3
Kfp`sbtok`s fh onuo p`r prflbpbtolbh ` o trovs kf do ollbh kf
`rnohbsg`s olutbl`s, todfs l`g` odnos y kbot`gfos, `Kfpsbt`s kfrbvok`s kf pdohtos olutblos suagorbhos ` jd`tohtfs y
suasflufhtfgfhtf g`kbjblokos p`r ohbgodfs olutbl`s.
M`rbz`htfs O3 M`rbz`htfs gbhfrodfs quf moh sbk` j`rgok`s fh do supfrjblbf `
oaoc` kf uh m`rbz`htf @, quf fxmbafh do fdbgbholbh kf t`ko ` nroh portf kf
do fstrulturo `rbnbhod kf do r`lo y gufstroh uho ` ogaos kf dos sbnubfhtfs3
Vho olugudolbh kf gotfrbo `rnhblo mugbjbloko htbgogfhtf
gfzldoko l`h do jrollbh gbhfrod y h` k`gbhok`s p`r pr`pbfkokfs
loroltfrstblos kf d`s m`rbz`htfs F ` A `9
Ur`pbfkokfs rfsudtohtfs kf su ludtbv`, kf post`rf` ` p`r tbp`s kf
kbsturab`s sbgbdorfs.
M`rbz`htfs F3 M`rbz`htfs gbhfrodfs, fh d`s quf fd prbhlbpod rosn` fs do
prkbko kf orlbddo sbdblotoko, mbfrr` ` odugbhb` ` odnuho l`gabholbh kf
fst`s, pfrgohflbfhk` uho l`hlfhtrolbh kf portludos kf orfho y dbg`.
Fst`s m`rbz`htfs fxmbafh uho fdbgbholbh kf t`ko ` do goy`r portf kf do
fstrulturo `rbnbhod kf do r`lo.
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M`rbz`htfs A3 M`rbz`htfs quf sf moh j`rgok` kfaoc` kf uh m`rbz`htf O, F u
@ y fsth k`gbhok`s p`r do kfstrullbh kf t`ko ` do goy`r portf kf do
fstrulturo `rbnbhod kf do r`lo y gufstroh uho ` gs kf dos sbnubfhtfs3
L`hlfhtrolbh bduvbod kf orlbddo sbdblotoko, mbfrr`, odugbhb`, mugus,
lora`hot`s, yfs` ` sdblf, sd`s ` fh l`gabholbh9Fvbkfhlbos kf rfg`lbh, okblbh ` trohsj`rgolbh kf lora`hot`s y/`
yfs`9
L`hlfhtrolbh rfsbkuod kf xbk`s9
Qfvfstbgbfht`s kf sfsqubxbk`s quf molfh od m`rbz`htf l`hspbluogfhtf
gfh`r fh fd l`d`r kfd vod`r, goy`r fh fd lmr`go ` gs r`cbz` fh fd muf,
sbh oporfhtf bduvbolbh kf mbfrr`9
Odtfrolbh quf j`rgo orlbddos sbdblotokos ` dbafro xbk`s ` oga`s y quf
j`rgo uho fstrulturo nrohudor, ad`l`so ` prbsgtblo sb fd v`dugfh
logabo ol`gpook` kf logab`s fh fd l`htfhbk` kf mugfkok9H` qufarokbz`s9 `
Ndfyzolbh jufrtf.
M`rbz`htfs ` lopos L3 Do goy`ro s`h lopos gbhfrodfs, pufkf sfr ` h`
l`gh od gotfrbod quf prfsugbadfgfhtf mo kok` `rbnfh od s`dug, ` pufkf
moafr sbk` g`kbjblok` ouhquf h` fxbsto fvbkfhlbo kf pfk`nhfsbs. Fxlduyfh
o do r`lo kuro, quf fsth p`l` ojfltok`s p`r pr`lfs`s pfk`nfhtbl`s y
lorflfh kf dos pr`pbfkokfs kf d`s m`rbz`htfs @, O, F, ` A.
Lopos Q3 Dflm` r`l`s` jufrtfgfhtf lfgfhtok` fhkurflbk`.
Lopos G3 Lopos kfd suasufd` dbgbtohtfs poro fd lrflbgbfht` kf rolfs, quf
l`hsbstfh kf gotfrbodfs losb l`htbhu`s, l`h `rbfhtolbh m`rbz`htod y kf
gohujolturolbh mugoho.
Lopos ^3 Onuo
Uoro uho goy`r oprflbolbh kf do kfh`gbholbh kf loko m`rbz`htf ` lopo vfr fd
luokr` H ?=.
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Luokr` H ?=3 L@H\BKFQOLB@HF\ UOQO D@\ M@QBS@H[F\ GOR@QF\ KFD \VFD@M`rbz`htf `
loposKfslrbplbh
M`rbz`htfs `lopos @
Odnuhos lopos @ fsth l`hstbtubkos p`r m`coroslo (pbs` j`rfstod) h`kfsl`gpufst` ` porlbodgfhtf kfsl`gpufst`. Uufkfh fstor s`arfsufd`s gbhfrodfs u rnhbl`s.
@tros lopos @ fsth l`gpufstos kf gotfrbodfs `rnhbl`s quf jufr`h
kfp`sbtok`s aoc` l`hkblb`hfs kf soturolbh y tbfhfh kbjfrfhtfs ftoposkf kfsl`gp`sblbh. Do jrollbh gbhfrod kf todfs gotfrbodfs l`hstbtuyfsd` uh pfquf` p`rlfhtocf kfd v`dugfh kfd gotfrbod y nfhfrodgfhtffs gulm` gfh`s kf do gbtok kfd pfs`.
Odnuh`s sufd`s l`hsbstfh fhtfrogfhtf kf gotfrbod kfsbnhok` l`g`m`rbz`htfs ` lopos @.
Vho lopo @ pufkf fstor s`arf do supfrjblbf kf uh sufd` gbhfrod ` oluodqubfr pr`juhkbkok aoc` sb fst fhtfrroko.
Vh m`rbz`htf j`rgok` p`r do bduvbolbh kf gotfrbo `rnhblo kfhtr` kfuh suasufd` gbhfrod h` fs uh m`rbz`htf @, ouhquf odnuh`s m`rbz`htfsj`rgok`s kf fsto gohfro l`htfhnoh lohtbkokfs l`hsbkfroadfs kfgotfrbo rnhblo.
M`rbz`htfs ylopos D
D`s m`rbz`htfs y lopos D bhlduyfh o dos tbfrros l`pr`nhblos (pfotsfkbgfhtorb`), o dos tbfrros kf kbot`gfos y o dos gornos.
\f prfsfhtoh sd` fh d`s Mbst`s`ds. H` tbfhfh dos kbstbhlb`hfs sua`rkbhokos kf `tr`s m`rbz`htfs goy`rfsy lopos, s`d` tbfhfh hblogfhtf dos sbnubfhtfs kbstbhlb`hfssua`rkbhokos3 l`, kb ` go.
M`rbz`htfs O
\b uh m`rbz`htf supfrjblbod tbfhf pr`pbfkokfs toht` kfd m`rbz`htf Ol`g` kfd F pfr` do loroltfrstblo gs fhjtblo fs do olugudolbh kfgotfrbo `rnhblo mugbjbloko, sf df kfsbnho l`g` uh m`rbz`htf O.
Fh odnuh`s dunorfs, l`g` fh ldbgos rbk`s lodbfhtfs, fd m`rbz`htfsupfrjblbod h` kbsturaok` fs gfh`s `slur` quf fd m`rbz`htf okyolfhtfbhjfrb`r y l`htbfhf sd` pfqufos lohtbkokfs kf gotfrbo `rnhblo9tbfhf uho g`rj`d`no kbjfrfhtf kf do lopo L, ouhquf do jrollbhgbhfrod h` fst odtfroko ` sd` dbnfrogfhtf odtfroko p`r fdbhtfgpfrbsg`. [od m`rbz`htf sf kfsbnho l`g` O p`rquf fst fh dosupfrjblbf9 sbh fgaorn`, d`s kfpsbt`s oduvbodfs ` fdbl`s rflbfhtfsquf gohtbfhfh uho fstrotbjblolbh jbho h` s`h l`hsbkfrok`s l`g`m`rbz`htfs O, o gfh`s quf fsth ludtbvok`s.
M`rbz`htfs F
Vh m`rbz`htf F usuodgfhtf sf kbjfrfhlbo kf uh m`rbz`htf Asuayolfhtf fh fd gbsg` sfquug p`rquf fd l`d`r kfd vod`r fs gs odt`` kfd lmr`go gs aoc`, ` oga`s, p`r do tfxturo gs nrufso, ` p`ruho l`gabholbh kf fsos pr`pbfkokfs.
Fh odnuh`s sufd`s fd l`d`r kfd m`rbz`htf F sf kfaf o dos portludos kforfho y dbg`, pfr` fh gulm`s sufd`s d`s rfvfstbgbfht`s kf xbk`s kfmbfrr` y `tr`s l`gpufst`s, fhgosloroh fd l`d`r kf dos portludosprbgorbos.
Vh m`rbz`htf F sf kbjfrfhlbo l`ghgfhtf kfd m`rbz`htf Osuproyolfhtf p`r su l`d`r gs ldor`. Nfhfrodgfhtf l`htbfhf gfh`sgotfrbo `rnhblo quf fd m`rbz`htf O.
Vh m`rbz`htf F l`ghgfhtf fst lfrlo kf do supfrjblbf oaoc` kf uhm`rbz`htf @, ` kf uh O y fhlbgo kf uh m`rbz`htf A, pfr` d`s
m`rbz`htfs fduvbodfs quf fsth kfhtr` ` fhtrf portfs kfd m`rbz`htf A,` d`s quf sf fxtbfhkfh o pr`juhkbkokfs goy`rfs kf dos `asfrvokospufkfh sfr kfsbnhok`s l`h do dftro F sb s`h pfk`nfhtbl`s.
M`rbz`htfs A
[`k`s d`s tbp`s kf m`rbz`htfs A s`h ` jufr`h `rbnbhodgfhtf m`rbz`htfssuasupfrjblbodfs. \f bhlduyfh l`g` m`rbz`htfs A, o lopos l`htbnuos o`tr`s m`rbz`htfs nfhtbl`s quf tbfhfh l`hlfhtrolbh bduvbod kflora`hot`s, yfs` ` sdblf quf s`h fd rfsudtok` kf pr`lfs`spfk`nfhtbl`s (y pufkfh ` h` fstor lfgfhtokos) y loposqufarokbzos quf gufstroh `tros fvbkfhlbos kf odtfrolbh, tod l`g`fstrulturo prbsgtblo olugudolbh bduvbod kf orlbddo.
Fcfgpd`s s`h lopos fh dos quf fxbstfh rfluarbgbfht`s kf orlbddo quffsth s`arf jrongfht`s kf r`lo ` luarfh sfkbgfht`s jbhogfhtffstrotbjblok`s h` l`hs`dbkok`s, yo sfo quf d`s rfluarbgbfht`s sf mohj`rgok` bh sbtu ` p`r bduvbolbh9 lopos kfhtr` kf dos luodfs d`s
lora`hot`s moh sbk` bduvbok`s pfr`, quf h` s`h l`htbhuos o uhm`rbz`htf nfhtbl` suproyolfhtf9 y lopos l`h ndfyzolbh quf h`tbfhfh tr`s logab`s pfk`nfhtbl`s.
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M`rbz`htfs `lopos L
\f bhlduyfh l`g` lopos L (h`rgodgfhtf kfsbnhok`s Lr) osfkbgfht`s, sopr`dbto, dflm`s r`l`s`s y `tr`s gotfrbodfs nf`dnbl`squf h` fsth g`kfrokogfhtf lfgfhtok`s gfh`s lfgfhtok`s.
Do kbjbludtok kf fxlovolbh fh fst`s gotfrbodfs fs aoco ` g`kfroko. \`h sufd`s j`rgok`s o portbr kf gotfrbodfs guy bhtfgpfrbzok`s, \b fd gotfrbod kfd sufd` h` lugpdfh l`h d`s rfqubsbt`s kf uh m`rbz`htf
O, F ` A sf dfs kfsbnho l`g` L.
D`s logab`s quf h` sf l`hsbkfroh pfk`nfhtbl`s s`h oqufdd`s quf h`sf rfdolb`hoh l`h m`rbz`htfs suproyolfhtfs. Odnuhos lopos quftbfhfh olugudolb`hfs kf sdblf, lora`hot`s ` yfs` ` sodfs gss`duadfs sf bhlduyfh fh d`s m`rbz`htfs L, oh luohk` fsthfhkurflbk`s. \bh fgaorn`, sb uho lopo lfgfhtoko fst j`rgoko p`rpr`lfs`s pfk`nfhtbl`s9 sf df l`hsbkfro l`g` uh m`rbz`htf A.
Lopos Q
Fd nrohbt`, aosodt`, luorlbto y lodbzo ` orfhbslo s`h fcfgpd`s kfdflm`s r`l`s`s kfsbnhok`s l`h do dftro Q. \u kbjbludtok kf fxlovolbhl`ghgfhtf fxlfkf o do lotfn`ro odto. Do lopo Q fs guy l`mfrfhtfluohk` fst mgfko poro molfr bgprltbl` su fxlovolbh l`h do podo,ouhquf pufkf sfr kfsgfhuzoko ` rospoko.
Odnuhos lopos Q sf pufkfh kfsg`r`hor l`h fqubp` pfsok`. Do r`lo gokrf pufkf tfhfr nrbftos, pfr` fstos s`h nfhfrodgfhtf toh
p`los y toh pfqufos quf h` pfrgbtfh pfhftror o dos rolfs. Dos nrbftos pufkfh fstor rfluabfrtos ` rfddfhos l`h orlbddo u `tr`
gotfrbod.
Lopos G [fhfg`s l`g` fcfgpd` d`s gotfrbodfs l`g`3 nf`tfxtbdfs, osjodt`,
l`hlrft`, mudf y pdstbl`.
Lopos ^
Fstf sga`d` bhkblo lopos kf onuo kfhtr` ` oaoc` kfd sufd`.
O do lopo kf onuo sf df kfsbnho l`g` ^j, sb fst pfrgohfhtfgfhtfl`hnfdoko y l`g` ^ sb h` d` fst.
Do kfsbnholbh ^ (` ^j) h` sf utbdbzo fh onuos s`gfros, mbfd` ` hbfvfquf fsth fhlbgo kf do supfrjblbf kfd sufd`.
Jufhtf3 Okoptok` kf V\KO (15?5)
6.1.1. M@QBS@H[F\ [QOH\BLB@HODF\ R FH L@GABHOLBH
Fh fd pfrjbd kfd sufd` togabh pufkfh fhl`htrorsf m`rbz`htfs trohsblb`hodfs y
l`gabholbh kf m`rbz`htfs l`g`3
M`rbz`htfs k`gbhok`s p`r pr`pbfkokfs kf uh m`rbz`htf goy`r quf tbfhf
pr`pbfkokfs sua`rkbhokos kf `tr`3 Uoro su rfprfsfhtolbh sf usoh k`s
dftros goysludos l`g` sga`d` kf trohsblbh9 p`r fcfgpd`3 OA, FA, AF, `
AL. Fd prbgfr` kf fs`s sga`d`s bhkblo od m`rbz`htf goy`r, luyos
pr`pbfkokfs k`gbhoh fh fd m`rbz`htf trohsblb`hod.
Vh m`rbz`htf OA, tbfhf loroltfrstblos kf oga`s, uh m`rbz`htf
suproyolfhtf O y uh suayolfhtf A, pfr` fs gs porflbk` od O quf od A.
Fh odnuh`s los`s, uh m`rbz`htf pufkf sfr kfsbnhok` l`g` trohsblb`hod,
ouh luohk` uh` kf d`s m`rbz`htfs goy`rfs h` fst prfsfhtf.
Vh m`rbz`htf AF pufkf sfr rfl`h`lbk` fh uh sufd` trohlok` sb sus
pr`pbfkokfs s`h sbgbdorfs o dos kf uh m`rbz`htf AF kf uh sufd` fh fd quf
uh m`rbz`htf suproyolfhtf F h` mo sbk` rfg`vbk` p`r do fr`sbh.
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Vh m`rbz`htf AL pufkf sfr rfl`h`lbk` ouhquf fd m`rbz`htf L
suayolfhtf h` fst prfsfhtf9 fs uh trohsblb`hod o gotfrbodfs porfhtodfs
osugbk`s.
M`rbz`htfs quf tbfhfh k`s portfs kbstbhtbvos l`h pr`pbfkokfs rfl`h`lbadfskf k`s m`rbz`htfs goy`rfs bhkblok`s p`r dftros goysludos3 Fh fstf los` dos
k`s dftros goysludos quf kfsbnhoh tod l`gabholbh fsth sfporokos p`r
uho kbon`hod (/), l`g` F/A, A/F, A/L. Do goy`ro kf dos portfs bhkbvbkuodfs
kf uh` fst r`kfoko p`r fd `tr`. Do kfsbnholbh sf pufkf usor oh luohk`
m`rbz`htfs sbgbdorfs o uh` ` oga`s l`gp`hfhtfs h` fsth prfsfhtfs, sb
fst`s pufkfh rfl`h`lfrsf p`r sfporok`. Fd prbgfr sga`d` l`rrfsp`hkf od
m`rbz`htf quf l`hstbtuyf fd goy`r v`dugfh.
6.1.
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Luokr` H ?23\VJBC@\ O\BNHOK@\ OD UFQJBD KFD \VFD@\VJBC@ KF\LQBULBH
(o) Gotfrbod`rnhbl` guykfsl`gpufst
Fstf sga`d` sf uso l`h @ poro bhkblor gotfrbodfs `rnhbl`s guykfsl`gpufst`s, d`s luodfs tbfhfh uh l`htfhbk` kf jbaro gfh`r kf ?> p`rlbfht` (p`r v`dugfh) kfspus kf g`dbk`.
(a) M`rbz`htfnfhtbl`fhtfrrok
Fstf sga`d` fs utbdbzok` fh sufd`s gbhfrodfs poro bhkblor m`rbz`htfs
fhtfrrok`s bkfhtbjbloadfs l`h rosn`s nfhtbl`s goy`rfs quf jufr`hj`rgok`s ohtfs kf fhtfrrorsf. D`s m`rbz`htfs nfhtbl`s pufkfh ` h`moafrsf j`rgok` kf d`s gotfrbodfs suproyolfhtfs, d`s luodfs pufkfh` h` sfr osugbk`s l`g` d`s gotfrbodfs porfhtodfs kf d`s sufd`sfhtfrrok`s. Fstf sga`d` h` sf uso fh sufd`s `rnhbl`s ` poro sfpororuho lopo `rnhblo kf uho gbhfrod.
(l) L`hlrflb`hfs` hkud`s
Fstf sga`d` bhkblo uho olugudolbh sbnhbjblotbvo kf l`hlrflb`hfs `hkud`s. Do lfgfhtolbh fs rfqufrbko. Fd onfhtf lfgfhtohtf fsl`ghgfhtf mbfrr`, odugbhb`, gohnohfs` ` tbtohb`. H` pufkf sfr sdblf,k`d`gbto, ldlbto sodfs gs s`duadfs.
(l`) [bfrrol`pr`nhblo
Fstf sga`d` fs utbdbzok` sd` l`h D, bhkblo uho lopo dghblo kf tbfrrol`pr`nhblo (` pfot sfkbgfhtorb`).
(k) Qfstrbllbhjsblo o rolfs
Fstf sga`d` bhkblo lopos h` lfgfhtokos, rfstrbltbvos o dos rolfs l`h`lurrfhlbo hoturod ` mflmos p`r fd m`garf, kf gotfrbodfs ` sfkbgfht`s.Fcfgpd`s s`h3 aosodt`s kfhs`s troaocok`s, pbs`s kf orok` y `tros z`hosgflhblogfhtf l`gpoltokos.
(kb) [bfrro kfkbot`gfos
Fstf sga`d`, s`dogfhtf sf uso l`h D, bhkblo uho lopo dghblo kf tbfrroskf kbot`gfos.
(f) Gotfrbod`rnhbl` kfkfsl`gp`sblbhbhtfrgfkbo
Fstf sga`d` sf uso l`h @ poro bhkblor gotfrbodfs `rnhbl`s l`hkfsl`gp`sblbh bhtfrgfkbo. \u l`htfhbk` kf jbaros fs kf ?> o ;5 p`rlbfht` (p`r v`dugfh) kfspus kf g`dbk`s.
(j) \ufd` ` onuol`hnfdok`s
Fstf sga`d` bhkblo quf fd m`rbz`htf ` lopo l`htbfhf mbfd` pfrgohfhtf. Fdsga`d` h` sf uso poro dos lopos l`hnfdokos fstolb`hodgfhtf ` poro do kfpfrgojr`st sfl`.
(jj) Ufrgojr`stsfl`
Fstf sga`d` bhkblo uh m`rbz`htf ` lopo quf fst gs jro quf 5 `L fhj`rgo l`htbhuo y h` l`htbfhf sujblbfhtf mbfd` poro fstor lfgfhtoko. Fstfsujbc` h` sf uso poro m`rbz`htfs ` lopos quf tbfhfh uh m`rbz`htf gslodbfhtf kf 5 `L fh odnh tbfgp` kfd o`.
(n) Ndfyzolbhjufrtf
Fstf sga`d` bhkblo quf fd mbfrr` juf rfkulbk` y rfg`vbk` kurohtf doj`rgolbh kfd sufd` ` quf do soturolbh l`h onuo fstohloko d` moprfsfrvok` fh uh fstok` rfkulbk`. Do goy`ro kf dos lopos ojfltokostbfhfh uh lmr`go kf 1 ` gfh`s y gulmos tbfhfh l`hlfhtrolb`hfsrfk`x. Fd lmr`go aoc` pufkf rfprfsfhtor fd l`d`r kfd mbfrr`rfkulbk` ` fd l`d`r kf dos portludos kf orfho y dbg` h` rfluabfrtos kf dosluodfs fd mbfrr` mo sbk` rfg`vbk`. Fd sga`d` n h` sf uso poro d`sgotfrbodfs kfd sufd` l`h aoc` lmr`go, quf h` tbfhfh ohtflfkfhtfs kfsoturolbh, tod l`g` d`s fsqubst`s ` d`s m`rbz`htfs F. \b n sf uso l`h A,bgpdblo logab`s pfk`nfhtbl`s okblb`hodfs o do ndfyzolbh. \bhbhnh `tr` logab` tbfhf dunor, fd m`rbz`htf fs kfsbnhok` l`g` Ln.
(m) Olugudolbhbduvbod kfgotfrbo`rnhblo
Fstf sga`d` sf uso l`h A poro bhkblor do olugudolbh kf l`gpdfc`s kfgotfrbo `rnhblo y sfsqubxbk`s, bduvbodfs, og`rj`s ` kbspfrsoadfs sb fdl`gp`hfhtf kfd sfsqubxbk` fst k`gbhok` p`r odugbhb` pfr` fstprfsfhtf sd` fh pfqufos lohtbkokfs. Fd gotfrbod rnoh`-sfsqubxbk`rfvbstf o dos portludos kf orfho y dbg`.Fh odnuh`s m`rbz`htfs, d`s rfluarbgbfht`s moh uhbk`, rfddfhok` p`r`s ylfgfhtok` fd m`rbz`htf. Fd sga`d` m togabh sf uso fh l`gabholbh l`hs l`g` Ams sb do lohtbkok kfd l`gp`hfhtf kfd sfsqubxbk` fssbnhbjblotbv` pfr` fd l`d`r kfd voduf y kfd lmr`go, fh mgfk` kfdm`rbz`htf, fs kf < ` gfh`s.
(b) Gotfrbod`rnhbl`dbnfrogfhtf
kfsl`gpufst
Fstf sga`d` sf uso l`h @ poro bhkblor uho ghbgo kfsl`gp`sblbh kf d`sgotfrbodfs `rnhbl`s. \u l`htfhbk` kf jbaros fs kf ;5 p`r lbfht` ` gs
(p`r v`dugfh) kfspus kf g`dbk`s.(c) Olugudolbhkf cor`bsbto
Do cor`sbto fs uh p`tosb` (jrrbl`) gbhfrod kf mbkrxbk` kf mbfrr` sudjot`,IJf< (\@;) 1 (@M) :, quf fs l`ghgfhtf uh pr`kult` kf odtfrolbh kf
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do pbrbto quf sf mo fxpufst` o uh ogabfhtf `xbkohtf. Do cor`sbto tbfhf uhmuf kf 1.6R ` gs ogorbddfht` y tbfhf h`rgodgfhtf uh lmr`go kf : `gs, ouhquf lr`gos toh aoc` l`g` < ` ; sf moh rfp`rtok`. \f j`rgo fhdo prfjfrfhlbo kf mbfrr` (mbkrxbk`s) fh sufd`s lbk`s kf sudjot` kf oltbv`so uh pM kf
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kf orlbddosbdblotoko
moafrsf j`rgok` y suasflufhtfgfhtf trohsp`rtok` fh fd m`rbz`htf `moafr sbk` g`vbko p`r bduvbolbh kfhtr` kf d, ` ogaos. Od gfh`s odnuhoportf kfd m`rbz`htf kfafr g`stror fvbkfhlbos kf olugudolbh kf orlbddo,yo sfo l`g` rfluarbgbfht`s s`arf do supfrjblbf kf d`s onrfnok`s ` fh d`sp`r`s, l`g` dogfdos l`g` pufhtfs fhtrf d`s nroh`s gbhfrodfs.
(u) Urfsfhlbo kfgotfrbodfs kfgohujolturolbhmugoho(ortfjolt`s)
Fstf sga`d` bhkblo do prfsfhlbo kf ortfjolt`s gohujolturok`s quf moh
sbk` lrfok`s ` g`kbjblok`s p`r d`s sfrfs mugoh`s, p`r d` nfhfrod poro uhjbh prltbl` fh vbvbfhko, do joarblolbh, do fxlovolbh, ` dos oltbvbkokfs kfl`hstrullbh. Fcfgpd`s kf ortfjolt`s s`h d`s pr`kult`s kf gokfro, d`spr`kult`s dqubk`s kfrbvok`s kfd pftrdf`, do l`gaustbh kf lorah y sua-pr`kult`s, dos jbaros kf osjodt`, y tfcbk`s, dokrbdd`s, ad`qufs kf lfgfht`,m`rgbnh, pdstbl`, vbkrb`, loulm`, popfd, lorth, mbfrr` y olfr`, gftodfsy gbhfrodfs odtfrok`s, rfsbku`s sohbtorb`s, gkbl`s y kf d`s vfrtfkfr`s.
(v) Udbhtbto
Fstf sga`d` bhkblo do prfsfhlbo kf uh sufd` rbl` fh mbfrr`, p`arf fhmugus, kf gotfrbod r`cbz`, jbrgf ` guy jbrgf fh mgfk` y gfh`sjufrtfgfhtf lfgfhtok`. \f fhkurflf brrfvfrsbadfgfhtf luohk` sffxp`hf o do otgsjfro l`h mugfkflbgbfht` y sflok` rfpftbk`s.
(w) Kfsorr`dd`
kf l`d`r `fstrulturo
Fstf sga`d` sf utbdbzo sd` l`h fd m`rbz`htf A poro bhkblor fd kfsorr`dd` kfl`d`r ` fstrulturo, ` oga`s, l`h p`lo ` hbhnuho olugudolbh oporfhtf kf
gotfrbod bduvbod. H` sf kfaf utbdbzor poro bhkblor uh m`rbz`htf kftrohsblbh.
(x) Lorltfr kfjronbph
Fstf sga`d` bhkblo uho lopo nfhtblogfhtf kfsorr`ddoko quf tbfhf uhol`gabholbh kf jbrgfzo y jronbdbkok, y l`h jrflufhlbo uho kfhsbkokoporfhtf goy`r quf do kf dos lopos suayolfhtfs. Odnuho portf kf do lopofs jsblogfhtf rfstrbltbvo o dos rolfs.
(y) Olugudolbhkf yfs`
Fstf sga`d` bhkblo uho olugudolbh kf yfs`. Fd sujbc` (y) sf utbdbzoluohk` do fstrulturo kfd m`rbz`htf fs k`gbhok` p`r dos portludos kfdsufd` u `tr`s gbhfrodfs kf yfs`. Fd yfs` fst prfsfhtf fh lohtbkokfs qufh` `slurflfh ` odtfror sbnhbjblotbvogfhtf `tros loroltfrstblos kfdm`rbz`htf.
(yy) K`gbhb` kfdm`rbz`htf kfyfs`
Fstf sga`d` bhkblo uh m`rbz`htf quf fst k`gbhok` p`r do prfsfhlbo kfyfs`. Fd l`htfhbk` kf yfs` pufkf kfafrsf o uho olugudolbh kf yfs`sfluhkorb`, ` o do trohsj`rgolbh prbgorbo kf yfs` mfrfkok` kf gotfrbodporfhtod, u `tr`s pr`lfs`s. Fd sujbc` yy sf utbdbzo luohk` do fstrulturo kfdm`rbz`htf tbfhf tod oauhkohlbo kf yfs` (nfhfrodgfhtf 65% ` gs, fhv`dugfh) quf sus loroltfrstblos pfk`nfhtblos y/` dbt`dnblos s`h`slurflbk`s ` pfrturaok`s p`r fd lrflbgbfht` kf lrbstodfs kf yfs`. D`sl`d`rfs os`lbok`s l`h m`rbz`htfs kf sujbc` yy h`rgodgfhtf s`h guyadohqufok`s l`h vod`r kf > o 2.6 y lr`go kf 1 ` gfh`s.
(z) Olugudolbhkf sodfs gss`duadfs quf fdyfs`
Fstf sga`d` bhkblo uho olugudolbh kf sodfs gs s`duadfs quf fd yfs`.
Jufhtf3 Okoptok` kf V\KO (15?5)
6.1.;. \VAKBZB\BH ZFQ[BLOD
L`ghgfhtf, uh m`rbz`htf ` uho lopo kfsbnhoko p`r uho s`do dftro ` uho
l`gabholbh kf dftros, hflfsbto suakbvbkbrsf. Uoro fstf pr`psbt`, sf okblb`hoh
hgfr`s orabn`s, do hugfrolbh l`gbfhzo l`h fd ? o luodqubfr hbvfd fh fd
pfrjbd. Fcfgpd`s3
Kfhtr` kf uh L, dos lopos sulfsbvos p`kroh sfr kfsbnhokos l`g` L?, L1, L
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Luohk` luodqubfr dftro quf sbga`dbzo o uh m`rbz`htf logabo, l`g`3 Atd - At1
- Atid - Ati1.
Dos suakbvbsb`hfs vfrtblodfs kfhtr` kf m`rbz`htfs l`hsflutbv`s h` sf
bhtfrrugpf fh uho kbsl`htbhubkok, sb do gbsgo l`gabholbh kf dftros fs
usoko fh oga`s gotfrbodfs, l`g`3 Asd - As1 - 1As
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Luohk` uh sufd` sf mo j`rgok` fh uh s`d` tbp` kf gotfrbod, fd prfjbc` sf `gbtf
kfd sga`d`9 t`k` fd pfrjbd fs gotfrbod ?. \bgbdorgfhtf, fd gotfrbo? supfrb`r fh
uh pfrjbd quf tbfhf k`s ` gs gotfrbodfs l`htrostohtfs, sf s arffhtbfhkf quf
fs gotfrbod ?, pfr` fd hgfr` sf `gbtf. Do hugfrolbh bhblbo l`h do sfnuhko
lopo kf gotfrbod l`htrostohtf, fd luod sf kfsbnho l`h 1. Dos lopos l`htrostohtfssuayolfhtfs s`h hugfrokos l`hsflutbvogfhtf. Oh luohk` do lopo bhjfrb`r od
gotfrbod 1 sfo sbgbdor od gotfrbod ?, sf kfsbnhoko l`g` < fh do sflufhlbo9 d`s
hgfr`s bhkbloh uh logab` kf gotfrbodfs, h` d`s tbp`s kf gotfrbod. K`hkf k`s
` gs m`rbz`htfs l`hsflutbv`s sf moh j`rgok` kfd gbsg` tbp` kf gotfrbod, fd
gbsg` hgfr` prfjbc` quf bhkblo do kbsl`htbhubkok fs opdblok` fh t`kos dos
kfsbnholb`hfs kf m`rbz`htfs3 Op-F-Atd -1At1-1At
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` gs m`rbz`htfs l`h uho kfh`gbholbh kbjfrfhtf kf m`rbz`htf fh uh pfkh,
pufkfh usorsf sga`d`s bkhtbl`s l`h dftros y hgfr`s poro d`s m`rbz`htfs quf
tbfhfh dos gbsgos loroltfrstblos. U`r fcfgpd`3 do sflufhlbo O-F-At-F-Atx-L, poro
fhjotbzor fsto loroltfrstblo, sf uso fd sga`d` kf do prbgo () l`h fd m`rbz`htf
goy`r d`lodbzok` gs oaoc` kf d`s k`s quf tbfhfh do gbsgo dftro kfkfsbnholbh, p`r fcfgpd`3 O-F-At-F-Atx-L.
Do prbgo h` sf uso o gfh`s quf t`kos dos dftros y d`s prfjbc`s hugrbl`s
orabn`s sfoh l`gpdftogfhtf bkhtbl`s. Do sflufhlbo O-At?-At1-1F-1At?-1At1
fs uh fcfgpd`. Lufhto l`h k`s m`rbz`htfs At kf kbjfrfhtfs dbt`d`nos, p`r d` quf
d`s m`rbz`htfs At h` s`h bkhtbl`s y do prbgo h` fs hflfsorbo. Do prbgo sf utbdbzo
poro d`s sufd`s l`h kbsl`htbhubkokfs dbt`dnblos luohk` tbfhfh m`rbz`htfs kf
kfh`gbholb`hfs bkhtblos3 OL-1Aw-1 OL-1A'w-
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gotfrbodfs trohsp`rtok`s p`r fd m`garf ` fhtrf d`s gotfrbodfs trohsp`rtok`s
p`r fd m`garf y dos lopos suayolfhtfs (p`r fcfgpd`, XO- XL?-1XL1-
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Jbnuro H ??3 [OADO GOH\FDD
Jufhtf3 \`bd \urvfry Gohuod, ?22
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Luokr` H 113 NQVU@\ [F][VQODF\\ga`d` Nrup`s [fxturo quf bhlduyf
D
G
U
Gp
Dbnfr`s
Gfkboh`s
Ufsok`s
Guy pfsok`s
OrfhosOrfhos Jrohlos
Jrohl` Orfh`s`
Jrohl`Jrohl` Dbg`s`Dbg`
Jrohl` Orlbdd`s`Jrohl` Orlbdd`s` Dbg`s`Jrohl` Orlbdd` Orfh`s`
Orlbdd` Orfh`s`Orlbdd` Dbg`s`Orlbdd`s`
Jufhtf3 Godportbko (?221).H`to3 Okfgs sf kfaf l`hsbkfror do tfxturo k`gbhohtf kfhtr` kf d`s prbgfr`s ?55 lg f pr`juhkbkok.
G`kbjblok`r tfxturod3Fsto rfjfrbk` o d`s jrongfht`s nrufs`s, l`g` nrovos,
pbfkros, r`los, loht`s r`kok`s u `tr`s, fhl`htrok`s kfhtr` kf d`s
m`rbz`htfs y/` lopos kf do lodbloto, o d`s quf sf df osbnhoro uh p`rlfhtocf
(%).
Fstrulturo3 Qfjfrbko o dos portludos kfd sufd` rfuhbkos fh j`rgo kf
onrfnok`s, k`hkf su nrok` kf l`mfsbh voro l`h fd l`htfhbk` kf mugfkok
kfd sufd`. Zfr luokr` H 1
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Mgfk`
G`cok`
Kur`Guy kur`Fxtrfgokogfhtf kur`
JrboadfGuy jrboadf,
L`hsbstfhtfGuy l`hsbstfhtfFxtrfgokogfhtf l`hsbstfhtf
Dbn`s`H` okmfsbv`
Jufhtf3 Sovodfto, ?2219 y Lodonuo, 1555.
pM3Fs t`gok` l`h fd pfolmbgftr`, luy`s vod`rfs fst fh juhlbh o uh rohn`
kf l`d`rfs quf sf fxprfso l`g` sbnuf. (luokr` H 16)
Luokr` H 163 BHJFQFHLBO\ NFHFQODBSOKO\ FH QFDOLBH OD pM
Nrok` kf olbkfz yodlodbhbkok
Zod`r(pM)
Bhjfrfhlbos nfhfrodbzokos
Guy fxtrfgokogfhtf lbk`
Fxtrfgokogfhtf lbk`
Guy jufrtfgfhtf lbk`
Jufrtfgfhtf lbk`
G`kfrokogfhtf lbk`
Dbnfrogfhtf lbk`
Hfutr`
Dbnfrogfhtf odlodbh`
G`kfrokogfhtf odlodbh`
Jufrtfgfhtf odlodbh`
Guy jufrtfgfhtf odlodbh`
4 .5>..6
=.5
=.6
2.6
8?5.5
Urfsfhlbo kf sudjot`s nfhfrodbzok`
Lohtbkokfs sbnhbjblotbvos kf M*logaboadf, fh okblbh kf Od***logaboadf.
\ujblbfhtf Od*** logaboadf
U`rlfhtocf kf soturolbh kf aosf fs
aoc`.
Od(@M)*** (Mbkr`xbd`s Od)Nrup`s juhlb`hodfs rnhbl`sMbkr`hb`
\oturolbh kf aosfs fhtrf >5 y 25%
L`gpdftogfhtf soturok` kf aosfsLoL@
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L@3 NQOK@ KF L@H[QO\[F KFD DGB[F KFD \VFD@Hbvfdfs Lotfn`ro Kfslrbplbh
Aruslo
Ldor`
Nrokuod
Kbjuso
Gfh`s kf 1 lg kf fspfs`r
Kf 1 o 6 lg kf fspfs`r
Kf 6 o ?6 lg kf fspfs`r
Gs kf ?6 lg kf fspfs`r
\ufd` jr`htfros , s`h jlbdgfhtfkftfrgbhok`s
\f pufkf kbstbhnubr l`h ldorbkok, fd pos`kf uh` o `tr`.
Fd logab` ougfhto nrokuodgfhtf,prbhlbpodgfhtf fh fd l`d`r.
\`h gs kbjlbdfs kf d`lodbzor, sf molfl`gporolb`hfs kf pfqufos gufstros kfsufd` kf kbvfrsos portfs kfd pfrjbd mosto dogbtok kf do z`ho kf trohsblbh.
Jufhtf3 Okoptok` kfd \`bd \urvfry Gohuod, ?22
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Fl`d`no3 Op`yok` fh fd gopo aosf kf fl`d`no y/` z`hos kf vbko, sf
uablor fh fd gopo, do uhbkok quf l`rrfsp`hkf od gabt` kf fstukb`.
Jbsb`nrojo3\f op`yoro fh fd gopo aosf jbsb`nrjbl`, l`rrfdolb`hhk`d` l`h
do uhbkok jbsb`nrojo, sfnh sfo fd gabt` kf fstukb`.
Gotfrbod porfhtod3 \f op`yor fh fd gopo nf`dnbl` y nf`g`rj`dnbl`, poro
tod kfsbnholbh, pufs fst rfjfrbk` o d`s gotfrbodfs h` l`hs`dbkok`s
gbhfrodfs y `rnhbl`s kfd sufd`. Fd gotfrbod porfhtod kf uh m`rbz`htf
nfhtbl` h` sf pufkf `asfrvor fh su fstok` `rbnbhod, kfaf kfkulbrsf kf dos
pr`pbfkokfs quf fd m`rbz`htf mo mfrfkok`, fstf gotfrbod odtfrok` sf ddogo
"rfsbku` kf do r`lo", y pufkf pr`lfkfr kf dos r`los nhfos, sfkbgfhtorbos `
gftogrjblos. \f prfsfhtoh dos suakbvbsb`hfs prbhlbpodfs kfd gotfrbod kf
`rbnfh3
Luokr` H 1=3 NQOK@ KF L@H[QO\[F KFD DGB[F KFD \VFD@\uakbvbsb`hfsprbhlbpodfs kfd
gotfrbod kf `rbnfhKfslrbplbh
Gotfrbod pr`kulbk` p`rfr`sbh kf do r`lo fh fddunor
Gotfrbod trosdokok` ykfp`sbtok` p`r fd onuo
Gotfrbod trosdokok` ykfp`sbtok` p`r fdvbfht`
Gotfrbod trosdokok` ykfp`sbtok` p`rpr`lfs`s ndolbodfs
Gotfrbod trosdokok` ykfp`sbtok` p`r donrovfkok
Gotfrbodfs rnhbl`s
Gotfrbodfs kf l`htrostf
Do hoturodfzo kf do r`lo `rbnbhod ojfltoko p`r do fr`sbh. Dor`lo pufkf moafr sujrbk` vorb`s logab`s (v`dugfh, prkbkokf gbhfrodfs kf jfdkfspot`, pdonb`ldoso y `tr`s gbhfrodfs).[ogabh pufkf pfrkfr gotfrbod gbhfrod sbh hbhnh logab` fhfd v`dugfh ` fh do fstrulturo kf do r`lo `rbnbhod, j`rgohk`sopr`dbto.
Oduvbh.kfpsbt`s dolustrfsD`s sfkbgfht`s gorbh`sD`s kfpsbt`s kf pdoyo
Do lfhbzo v`dlhblo, pbfkro pgfzy lfhbzoskfpsbt`s kf d`fssOrfho fdblo - kuhos kf orfhoU`dv`
Ndolbodkfpsbt`s jduvb`ndolbodfsUdoyo kf d`s kfpsbt`s ndolbodfskfpsbt`s ndolb`dolustrf
L`duvbod
turao sfkbgfhtorboturao kf gusn`turao mfralfo^``ky turao
\f rfdolb`hoh l`h pr`lfs`s nf`dnbl`s s`h l`htrostohtfsgotfrbodfs kfd sufd`. Fd trgbh` kbsl`htbhubkok sf opdblo olbfrt`s tbp`s kf gotfrbodfs kfd sufd` fh l`htrostf. H`l`hs`dbkokos fh l`htrostf gotfrbod kfd sufd` pufkf kbjfrbr fhdo kbstrbaulbh kf p`r`s kf togo`, kbstrbaulbh kf togo` kfportludos, do gbhfrod`no, kfhsbkok oporfhtf, u trospr`pbfkokfs.
Jufhtf3 Okoptok` kfd \`bd \urvfry Gohuod, ?22
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Ldbgo Up gg3\f tfhkr fh l`hsbkfrolbh d`s kot`s kf prflbpbtolbh pduvbod
t`tod ohuod pr`gfkb`.
[fgpfroturo L3 \f l`hsbkfror dos tfgpfroturos gxbgos y ghbgos
ohuodfs pr`gfkb`, kfabk` o quf pufkfh sfr ojfltok`s hfnotbvogfhtf p`rl`hkblb`hfs fxtrfgos (gfh`s kf 6 L y gs kf ;5 L).
Mugfkok3 \f op`yor fh kot`s rfdolb`hok`s l`h do mugfkok rfdotbvo
ghbgo y gxbgo.
Zfnftolbh ` ludtbv`3 \f mor uh arfvf bhvfhtorb` kf dos fspflbfs gs
rfprfsfhtotbvos fh fd rfo kf opfrturo kf do lodbloto.
Qfdbfvf3Fsto fh juhlbh kf do supfrjblbf. Luokr` H 123
Luokr` H 123 [@U@NQOJO KFD [FQQFH@[bp` Kfslrbplbh
Udoho@hkudoko suovf@hkudokosGblr`ollbkfhtoko gblr`qufaroko
Ousfhlbo kf gblr`-`hkudolb`hfs y gblr`-kfprfsb`hfs.L`h gblr`-`hkudolb`hfs guy fspolbokos.L`h gblr`-`hkudolb`hfs kf bnuod ohlmuro y pr`juhkbkok.Urfsfhto hkudolb`hfs gs pr`juhkos quf ohlmos.
Okoptohk` o Godportbko (?221).
Odtbtuk3Fstor fh juhlbh o d`s 5 gftr`s s`arf fd hbvfd kfd gor.
Ufhkbfhtf3Fsto fh juhlbh kf do nrokbfhtf (fhtfhkbko l`g` do bhldbholbh kf do
supfrjblbf kfd sufd` o do m`rbz`htod), d`hnbtuk y ospflt`9 y tbfhf uho bgp`rtohtf
bhjdufhlbo s`arf do lohtbkok, tbp` kf fslurrbgbfht` y sfkbgfhtolbh
os`lbok` o do fsl`rrfhto. Ro quf bhjduyf fh do rftfhlbh y g`vbgbfht` kf
onuo, trohsjfrfhlbo kf lod`r, g`vbgbfht` kf gotfrbod kfd sufd`, p`tfhlbod
poro kfsdbzogbfht`s, olfdfrolbh kf do fr`sbh, fhtrf `tr`s (Lfrvohtfs y
Zodfhlbo, ?2=>). Uoro fd fstukb` kf sufd` sf l`hsbkfro quf uho pfhkbfhtf kf
;6 fs uho pfhkbfhtf od ?55 %, kfabk` o quf do kbjfrfhlbo kf odtbtuk fhtrfk`s puht`s kf ?55 gftr`s kf kbstohlbo m`rbz`htod fs kf ?55 gftr`s fh uho
pfhkbfhtf kf ;6, vfr luokr` H
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Hopo jrftblo3\f molf gfhlbh sb od g`gfht` kf opfrturor do lodbloto sf
fhlufhtro do hopo jrftblo, sf t`go do kbstohlbo l`g` rfjfrfhlbo.
Mugfkok3Od g`gfht` kf molfr do dflturo kf do lodbloto, sf kfaf prflbsor
fh quf fstok` sf rfodbz`, sb do dflturo juf fh sfl` ` mgfk`.
Kbstrbaulbh kf rolfs3Do pr`juhkbkok kf do roz pufkf vorbor kfpfhkbfhk` kf do
pdohto, os togabh pufkf fstor dbgbtohk` p`r roz`hfs jsblos (bhldubko do
tfgpfroturo kfd sufd`) y/` loroltfrstblos qugblos. Zfr luokr` H
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Luokr` H
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LOUB[VD@
[QO[OGBFH[@KFDOGVF\[QO
Fd trotogbfht` kf do gufstro sf ko o portbr kf do josf kf logp` mosto do
kftfrgbholbh kf dos loroltfrstblos kfd sufd`, rfodbzok`s p`r fd doa`rot`rb`.
Fstf dtbg` loroltfrbzoro do gufstro kf olufrk` o sus pr`pb`s porgftr`s y
gft`k`d`nos, sbh fgaorn` do JO@ y fd V\KO molf gfhlbh o dos gft`k`d`nos
rfl`gfhkokos, poro uho gfc`r fjblbfhlbo.
;.?. LOKFHO KF LV\[@KBO3
Fs fd pr`lfkbgbfht` y lubkok` quf sf df ko o do gufstro uho vfz, `atfhbko, sf
kfaf l`hsbkfror poro fdd`, d`s sbnubfhtfs porgftr`s3
Fhvosok` kf do gufstro3 Do gufstro sfr kbspufsto fh 1 a`dsos kf
p`dbftbdfh` kf aoco kfhsbkok kf opr`xbgokogfhtf ? ibd`, poro fvbtor
prkbkos p`r jbsuros fh do a`dso. O su vfz, loko gufstro sfr fhvosoko fh
a`dsos kf p`dbftbdfh` kf 6 in, p`r loko lodbloto, y fh su l`hcuht` sfrfhvosok` fh l`stodfs kf p`dbftbdfh` kf kf ?55 in, fd hugfr` kf l`stodfs o
fgpdfor fstor fh juhlbh od togo` kf gufstro. H` fs prflbs` uh fhvosf
s`jbstblok` yo quf h` fs uh ohdbsbs poro kftfrgbhor p`sbadf l`htogbholbh.
Q`tudok` kf dos gufstros3 Kfaf sfr rfodbzoko fh do portf fxtfrho, l`h uh
pdugh nrufs` bhkfdfadf, kf l`d`r fstrbkfhtf.
Ddfhok` kf rfnbstr` kfd doa`rot`rb`3Ohtfs kf trohsp`rtor do gufstro sf kfaf
ddfhor d`s j`rgot`s kfd doa`rot`rb` od quf vo kbrbnbk`, fspflbjblohk`, rozh
s`lbod, d`lodbkok, hugfr` kf gufstros p`r m`rbz`htf, tbp` kf fhvosok` y
tbp` kf ohdbsbs.
[rohsp`rtf3 \f koh k`s l`hkblb`hfs kf trohsp`rtf, fd prbgfr` fh t`k` fd
gabt` kf fstukb`, sbfhk` trohsp`rtok` fh uh vfmlud` pr`pb`, sb jufro
logb`hfto, sfr kbspufst` fh do portf kf otrs y kfafr fstor luabfrt`. Fd
sfnuhk` trosdok` sf kor kfd puht` kf l``rkbholbh fh logp` molbo fd
doa`rot`rb` fhlornok` kf rfodbzor do loroltfrbzolbh kf dos gufstros, vo
onfhlbo ` vfmlud` pr`pb`. Kblm` vfmlud` h` rfqubfrf kf pfrgbs` fspflbod,
ZB
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hb trotogbfht` kf trosp`rtf p`r h` prfsfhtor rbfsn` odnuh` od ogbfhtf hb o
do soduk mugoho.
;.1. GF[@K@D@NO\ KF OHDB\B\ (DOA@QO[@QB@)
Dos gufstros kf d`s kbjfrfhtfs sufd`s s`h fhtrfnok`s od doa`rot`rb` poro su
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